DNA Methylation Changes Associated with Major Psychosis

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides a method of identifying one or more epigenetic markers associated with psychosis-associated diseases such as bipolar disease or schizophrenia, the method comprising a) obtaining a first group of samples comprising genomic DNA from a plurality of bipolar or schizophrenic subjects and a second group of samples comprising genomic DNA from a plurality of control subjects; b) performing DNA methylation analysis to determine methylation differences in one or more DNA regions between the first group and second group of samples, wherein a methylation difference in a DNA region is indicative of an epigenetic marker associated with bipolar disease or schizophrenia. The invention also provides one or more epigenetic markers associated with psychosis-associated diseases such as bipolar disease or schizophrenia.

This application is a Continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/337,394, filed Dec. 27, 2011, which is a Continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/524,114, filed Jul. 22, 2009, which is the National Stage application of International Application No. PCT/CA2008/000129, filed Jan. 23, 2008, which claimed the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/886,188, filed Jan. 23, 2007 and of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/997,968, filed Oct. 5, 2007. The entire contents of each of these applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference.

Submitted herewith is a Sequence Listing in computer readable format (CRF) which corresponds to the paper Sequence Listing that was originally submitted on Jul. 22, 2009 in U.S. application Ser. No. 12/524,114.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The present invention relates to identification of epigenetic abnormalities. More particularly, the present invention relates to diagnosis of diseases based on DNA methylation differences, and identification and isolation of nucleotide sequences variable modification of which are associated with such diseases.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Epigenetics refers to the regulation of various genomic functions that are controlled by partially stable modifications of DNA and chromatin proteins, which are critical to the proper functioning of the genome. Recent evidence suggests that epigenetic signals can pass from one generation to the next, contrary to the previous belief that epigenetic signals were lost during fertilisation and early development.

Phenotypic differences between individuals have traditionally been attributed to genetic (DNA sequence) variation and environmental differences. Over the last several decades, documentation of DNA sequence variants has been one of the top priorities in biomedical research. Numerous major international projects including the Human Genome sequencing project (1,2) the creation of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) databases (dbSNP, now called Entrez SNP) and the Haplotype Map3 have contributed significantly to the understanding of the position, degree, and structure of DNA polymorphisms. However, SNPs and other DNA sequence differences are relatively rare, and DNA sequences of two unrelated individuals can exhibit 99.5% identity. Furthermore, only a small fraction of these polymorphisms are functional (i.e. polymorphisms that change amino acid sequence in the protein or have an impact on gene expression). Sequencing of chimpanzee's (pan troglodytes) genome revealed 98.67% DNA sequence identity to the human genome, and again, only a fraction of such polymorphisms appear to result in structural or functional gene differences (4). Such findings raise the question as to whether the low DNA sequence variation across unrelated individuals and our closest related species sufficient to account for all major differences in physiological and psychological phenotypic outcomes.

One potential, although poorly investigated, source of phenotypic differences is epigenetic variation. Epigenetics refers to the regulation of various genomic functions that are controlled by partially stable modifications of DNA and chromatin proteins (see, for example (5)). Epigenetic signals are required for the proper functioning of the genome, as seen in Dnmt1 knockout mice that die in early embryogenesis (6), several rare pediatric syndromes, and cancer (7). One important feature of epigenetic regulation is the partial epigenetic stability, or metastability. Epigenetic profiles in different cells of the same organism can be quite different and developmental programs, environmental factors or stochastic events in the nucleus of a cell, can induce this variation. The first systematic effort to document DNA methylation differences and similarities across different genome regions has been recently launched and called the Human Epigenome Project. The pilot study of the MHC locus on chromosome 6 investigated seven cell types (adipose, brain, breast, lung, liver, prostate, and muscle) across 32 individuals (8). In this study only 5% (14/253 amplicons) of the tested loci showed significant inter-individual variability. The Human Epigenome Project as well as other smaller scale studies have primarily investigated epigenetic variation in somatic cells. However, there has been very little effort to document epigenetic variation in the germline, apart from imprinted genes (9,10) and isolated cases of germ cell epimutations (11,12).

There are several reasons to believe that the germline may contain substantial epigenetic variation. Epigenetic reprogramming during gametogenesis, fertilization, and embryogenesis involves dramatic chromatin remodelling (13). Methylation reprogramming during gametogenesis involves the erasure and reestablishment of methylation of imprinted genes and other non-imprinted genes and then a second wave of reprogramming during fertilization (paternal) and embryogenesis (maternal) (13). This process is thought to ensure that both gametes acquire the appropriate sex-specific epigenetic state and establish the epigenetic state required for early embryonic development and toti- or pluripotency, and in addition allow the erasure of epimutations that adult germ cells may have inherited or developed during their lifetime (14,15). In parallel to DNA methylation, chromatin changes during spermatogenesis involve the compaction of the haploid genome by replacement of the core histones through transition proteins to the much smaller basic protamines 1 and 2 (16). However, a number of testis-specific histones and histone variants, such as TSH2B, histones H2A, H3 and H4, variants of H2B and CENP-A, are present to some extent in the mature spermatozoa (17-19). How these remaining histones are arranged and to what extent inter-individual variability in histone placement and modification can affect development and phenotype is yet to be investigated. Despite dramatic changes, not all epigenetic signals are erased in the germline, and recent studies in mice have suggested that this phenomenon could underlie epigenetic inheritance (20,21). Therefore, there is ample opportunity during these phases of reprogramming to either maintain or generate substantial epigenetic variability in the germ cells.

Substantial progress has been made in recent years with respect to the diagnosis and treatment of diseases in which a single defective gene is responsible. Traditional linkage studies have effectively isolated the causal gene and allowed for the further development of diagnostic tests and furthered research into treatments such as gene therapy for conditions such as cystic fibrosis, Duchennes muscular dystrophy, Huntington's disease and fragile X syndrome. However, similar progress has not been made in complex diseases caused by mutations in multiple genes. Traditional linkage studies in complex diseases has only succeeded in isolating chromosome regions that contain several hundred genes. The ability to screen such a large number of genes is clearly a time consuming and daunting task.

There is a need in the art to identify nucleotide sequences associated with psychosis-associated diseases, for example, but not limited to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. There is also a need in the art to identify epigenetic nucleotide sequences that are differentially methylated in diseases states such as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to detection of epigenetic abnormalities and diagnosis of diseases associated with epigenetic abnormalities, and identification and isolation of nucleotide sequences that are associated with such diseases.

According to the present invention there is provided a method of identifying one or more epigenetic markers associated with psychosis-associated diseases, for example, but not limited to schizophrenia or bipolar disease, the method comprising,

a) obtaining a first group of samples comprising genomic DNA from a plurality of subjects having a psychosis-associated disease and a second group of samples comprising genomic DNA from a plurality of control subjects;

b) performing DNA methylation analysis to determine methylation differences in one or more DNA regions between the first group and second group of samples, wherein a methylation difference in a DNA region is indicative of an epigenetic marker associated with psychosis associated disease, for example, but not limited to schizophrenia or bipolar disease.

The present invention also provides a method as defined above, wherein the DNA methylation analysis is DNA microarray analysis. However, other types of DNA methylation analysis alone or in combination with microarray analysis may be used in the method of the present invention.

Also provided by the present invention is a method as described above, wherein the samples are blood, brain, sperm or any other tissue or sample that provides genomic DNA.

The present invention also provides a method of as defined above, wherein DNA microarray analysis comprises hybridization of differentially epigenetically modified DNA from each subject of said first and second groups to a genomic microarray.

The present invention further contemplates a method as defined above, wherein the differences comprise hypermethylation differences, hypomethylation differences or both.

Also provided by the present invention is a method as defined above wherein said step of performing identifies a set of epigenetic markers, the set providing an increased correlation of association with psychosis-associated disease, for example, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia as compared to a single epigenetic marker.

The present invention also provides a method as defined above that further comprises identifying one or more genes associated with the epigenetic markers.

Also provided by the present invention is a method of determining the risk of a subject having or developing a psychosis-associated disease, for example, but not limited to bipolar disorder or schizophrenia comprising,

a) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from the subject,

b) determining the methylation status of one or more epigenetic markers in the genomic DNA sample from the subject, and;

c) comparing the methylation status of said one or more epigenetic markers to the methylation status of a control group of epigenetic markers associated with one or more psychosis-associated diseases, for example, but not limited to bipolar disorder or schizophrenia, wherein similar or identical methylation profiles are indicative of an increased risk of having or developing psychosis-associated diseases, for example bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.

The present invention also provides one or more epigenetic markers associated with bipolar disease or schizophrenia. In a preferred embodiment, but not wishing to be limiting, the epigenetic markers are identified by a method as defined above.

The present invention also provides one or more markers associated with bipolar disease or schizophrenia, wherein each of said one or more markers comprises a methylated cytosine.

The present invention also provides a nucleotide sequence array comprising one or more epigenetic markers associated with bipolar disease or schizophrenia. In a further embodiment, which is not meant to be limiting in any manner, the present invention provides one or more nucleotide sequence arrays, wherein each array consists of a plurality of markers associated with bipolar disease or schizophrenia.

In a further embodiment, the present invention provides a set of epigenetic markers associated with bipolar disease or schizophrenia, the markers comprising a plurality of nucleotide sequences that are differentially epigenetically modified and that are positively associated with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.

This summary of the invention does not necessarily describe all features of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other features of the invention will become more apparent from the following description in which reference is made to the appended drawings wherein:

FIGS. 1A and 1B. Intra-individual variability of DNA methylation. A. DNA methylation profiles of the promoter CpG islands of BRCA1 and PSEN2 determined based on sequencing 60 clones of bisulphite modified sperm DNA. BRCA1 locus covered 32 CpGs PSEN2 region included 45 CpGs. Nine monomorphic (unmethylated) CpGs (BRCA1 or PSEN2) were excluded from the figure. Each individual is represented with individual CpG dinucleotides, left to right (black-methylated cytosines, white-unmethylated cytosines), and individual clones, top to bottom. Like the presented BRCA1 and PSEN2 cases, a substantial proportion of clones in other loci (HD, DM1, BRCA2, and PSEN1) revealed unique DNA methylation profiles. B. Estimates of the proportion of unique methylation profiles in the promoter regions of the six analyzed genes. Y axis: proportion of clones carrying unique methylation profiles over the total number of sequenced clones; X axis: proportion of unique profiles that contain at least 1, 2, and 3 differences (left, middle, and right bar, respectively) compared to the other profiles at the same locus of the same individual.

FIG. 2. Inter-individual variability of DNA methylation in 6 human disease genes. Bisulphite modification-based mapping of methylated cytosines in BRCA1, BRCA2, HD, DM1, PSEN1, and PSEN2. 30 individual clones were sequenced from 3 to 7 individuals. Analysis for each gene is represented in two panels. The left panels are a graphical profile of the percentage of methylation (Y-axis, ranging from 0%-40%) for every CpG dinucleotide (X-axis, ranging from 32 to 108 CpG dinucleotides) out of the total number of clones for each individual. The right panels represent Euclidean distances (Y-axis) of pairwise comparisons between individual methylation profiles (X-axis). The middle straight horizontal line is the mean distance and upper and lower straight horizontal lines are +/−2SD from the mean, both obtained for each gene from the permutation study (see Examples). Pair-wise comparisons are annotated as e.g. “16” for the comparison of the Euclidian distance of individual 1 with individual 6. Primed individual numbers (e.g. 4′) represent a second set of 30 clones from those individuals. The error bars on some data points represent standard deviation from 100,000 permutations of 30 clone groups from the individuals where 60 clones were sequenced.

FIGS. 3A and 3B. Chromosomal view of methylation variability by CpG Island microarray analysis. A. The unmethylated fraction of genomic DNA extracted from sperm samples (N=21) was hybridized individually (Cy5) versus the pooled reference control (Cy3). The coefficient of variance (CV) of Cy5/Cy3 ratio was calculated for each spot across the 21 individuals and mapped to the corresponding genomic location. Each chromosome ideogram is overlaid with bars representing the position of each clone on the CpG island microarray. B. Screenshot of the custom annotation track on the USCS genome browser (available at http://www.epigenomics.ca). Shown is Chr 6, which includes the major histocompatibility complex locus that was screened for epigenetic variability by the Human Epigenome Project pilot study.

FIG. 4. Age related DNA methylation changes in the sperm. Individuals were ordered with increasing age (top left panel) and gene specific DNA methylation dynamics was investigated using the individual ages (sperm DNA-HpaII: age range 24-56 yr) as a covariate. Pearson correlation was calculated for each locus, and the one-tailed p-value of the coefficient was obtained. 105 loci were identified in the sperm DNA-HpaII data set as significantly (p<0.05) correlated (r>0.5) or inversely correlated (r<−0.5) with age. Since unmethylated fraction of DNA was interrogated, positive correlation indicates decreasing DNA methylation with age, while inverse correlation reflects increasing methylation with age. The genes CTNNA2, EED, CALM1, CDH13 and STMN2 are shown as examples. Other genes for the sperm DNA-HpaII dataset and the sperm DNA-HHA and brain DNA-HpaII data sets are presented herein.

FIGS. 5A and 5B. Repetitive element analysis in sperm DNA-HpaII and brain DNA-HpaII data sets. A. The microarray loci that contain a single repetitive element were separated into each repeat class and the mean CV (+/−SD) was calculated. The repeat classes include DNA transposons (N=209), LINEs (N=771), low complexity repeats (N=461), long terminal repeats—LTRs (N=360), satellites (N=208), simple repeats (N=346), SINEs (N=1058), snRNA (N=30) and tRNA (N=40) and the non-repetitive loci (N=6976) are presented for comparison. The satellite repeats were the only class to show significantly increased variability in the sperm DNA-HpaII (p=6.12E-17) and less significantly in the brain DNA-HpaII (p=0.0027) data sets. B. The breakdown of the satellite repeats into specific satellite repeat classes revealed a number of repeat classes with increased variability, predominantly the centromeric satellite repeats, including (GAATTC)n (p=8.44E-17, N=55), ALR/Alpha (p=4.08E-25, N=119), CER (p=0.0026, N=6) and HSATII repeats (p=3.91E-5, N=19), but not in BSR/Beta repeats (p>0.05, N=7).

FIG. 6. Methylation sensitive single nucleotide primer extension (MS-SNuPE) analysis of densities of methylated cytosines in CpG dinucleotides of selected genes. Genomic DNA from each of 11 individuals was treated with sodium bisulphite and then PCR amplified for each gene. The genes NELL2, SCAM1, NEIL2, MKL2, CDH13 and OLR1 are represented. The methylation status of CpG dinucleotides within each of the restriction enzyme sites was interrogated using the primer extension reactions. Methylation of each of the CpG dinucleotides is represented as a percentage of methylated PCR products: completely unmethylated (white circles), partially methylated (half circles) or completely methylated (black circles).

FIG. 7. Methylation profiles of CDH13. Methylation status of 16 CpG sites surrounding CDH13 C/G SNP across 30 clones sequenced in each of five tested individuals. 77% (67/87) of the G alleles are methylated (4 or more methylated CpGs) while 78% (49/63) of the C (bisulphite converted to T) alleles are unmethylated. The first seven CpG dinucleotides interrogated by MS-SnuPE in FIG. 6 are represented in this figure as CpGs #5, 6, 9, 10, 13, 15, and 16. CpG 9 is the third MS-SnuPE primer that was predominantly unmethylated in all individuals. Each individual is represented with single CpG dinucleotides, left to right (black-methylated, white-unmethylated), and individual clones, top to bottom.

FIGS. 8A and 8B. Chromosomal view of brain-HpaII (A) and sperm-HHA (B) data sets. The unmethylated fraction of genomic DNA enriched from brain DNA (N=22) or sperm samples (N=25) and each was hybridized individually (Cy5) versus the pooled samples (Cy3). The coefficient of variance (CV) of ratio Cy5/Cy3 was calculated for each spot across the 22 or 25 individuals and mapped to the corresponding genomic location. Each chromosome ideogram is overlaid with bars representing the position of each clone on the array.

FIG. 9 shows a Volcano plot of BP Case vs Control t-test significance (FDR corrected p-value) plotted on the y-axis against the BP Case fold-change on the X-Axis.

FIG. 10 shows results of microarray loci suggesting that ERBB4 has significantly higher methylation than controls.

FIGS. 11A-11S show the nucleotide sequences of loci identified by the method of the present invention.

FIG. 12 shows volcano plots illustrating differential methylation profiles of psychosis subjects versus unaffected individuals.

FIG. 13 shows a volcano plot illustrating the differential methylation profile of bipolar disorder subjects versus unaffected individuals.

FIGS. 14A-14D show results confirming methylation differences in two genes nominated from microarray analysis.

FIG. 15 shows categories for various diagnostic groups.

FIGS. 16A-16C show graphical results of partial correlation network analysis illustrating connection between nodes.

FIGS. 17A and 17B show DNA methylation differences associated with psychosis and an example of expression data obtained from the Stanley Research Foundation database illustrating significant down-regulation of NR4A2 in SZ samples obtained from the Stanley Array Consortium.

FIG. 18 shows correlation between DNA methylation in the promoter region of a protein kinase and lifetime antipsychotic use in schizophrenia samples.

FIG. 19 shows verification of microarray-based DNA methylation profiling results.

FIGS. 20A-20C show network analysis of DNA methylation microarray data.

FIGS. 21A and 21B show the association of BDNF genotype with DNA methylation at nearby exonic CpG sites.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description is of a preferred embodiment.

According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method of identifying one or more epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease, the method comprising,

a) obtaining a first group of samples comprising genomic DNA from a plurality of subjects having psychosis-associated disease and a second group of samples comprising genomic DNA from a plurality of control subjects;

b) performing DNA methylation analysis to determine methylation differences in one or more DNA regions between the first group and second group of samples, wherein a methylation difference in a DNA region is indicative of an epigenetic marker associated with psychosis-associated disease.

In a preferred embodiment, which is not meant to be limiting in any manner, the psychosis-associated disease is bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.

In the context of the present invention, by the term “epigenetic marker” it is meant a nucleotide sequence that is differentially epigenetically modified in psychosis-associated disease, for example, but not limited to bipolar disorder or schizophrenia, as compared to the nucleotide sequence in a normal or control state. The epigenetic marker may be hypermethylated or hypomethylated in the disorder or disease state relative to the normal or control state. In general, the epigenetic marker comprises between about 5 and about 10000 nucleotides, for example, but not limited to 5, 7, 9, 11, 15, 17, 21, 25, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900 or 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000, 8000, 9000, 10000 nucleotides, or any amount therein between. Further, the epigenetic marker may comprise a range of sizes as defined by any two of the values listed or any two amounts therein between.

As used herein, the term DNA methylation refers to the addition of a methyl group to the cyclic carbon 5 of a cytosine nucleotide. A family of conserved DNA methyltransferases catalyzes this reaction.

By the term “DNA methylation analysis” it is meant any technique, method or combination thereof that may be employed to determine methylation differences between samples comprising genomic DNA. Such techniques also may be employed to determine methylation profiles of nucleotide sequences, for example information such as, but not limited to methylation status of a plurality of nucleotides over a specified DNA region. The methods and techniques may comprise, but are not limited to:

methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes, for example, but not limited to as described in Issa J. P., et al. (1994) Nature Genetics 7:536-40. The terms “restriction endonucleases” and “restriction enzymes” refer to bacterial enzymes, each of which cut double stranded DNA at or near a specific nucleotide sequence. The process of cutting or cleaving the DNA is referred to as restriction digestion. The products of a restriction digestion are referred to as restriction products. A restriction enzyme used in the present invention may yield restriction products having blunt-ends or overhanging “sticky” ends. Specifically, a restriction enzyme can symmetrically cut both strands of a double stranded DNA fragment to produce a blunt-ended fragment, or a restriction enzyme may assymetrically cleave the two strands of a DNA fragment to produce a DNA fragment that has a single stranded overhang. In general, a methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme used in the present invention will recognize and cleave a non-methylated sequence, while it will not cleave a corresponding methylated sequence. Methylation of plant and mammalian DNA occurs at CG or CNG sequences. This methylation may interfere with the cleavage by some restriction endonucleases. Endonucleases that are sensitive and not sensitive to mSCG or mSCNG methylation, as well as isoschizomers of methylation-sensitive restriction endonucleases that recognize identical sequences but differ in their sensitivity to methylation, can be extremely useful for studying the level and distribution of methylation in eukaryotic DNA. Examples of methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes, and corresponding restriction site sequences, that can be used according to the present invention include, but are not limited to: AatII (GACGTC); Bsh1236I (CGCG); Bsh1285I (CGRYCG); BshTI (ACCGGT); Bsp68I (TCGCGA); Bsp119I (TTCGAA); Bsp143II (RGCGCY); Bsu15I (ATCGAT); Cfr10I (RCCGGY); Cfr42I (CCGCGG); CpoI (CGGWCCG); Eco47III (AGCGCT); Eco52I (CGGCCG); Eco72I (CACGTG); Eco105I (TACGTA); EheI (GGCGCC); Esp3I (CGTCTC); FspAI (RTGCGCAY); Hin1I (GRCGYC); Hin6I (GCGC); HpaII (CCGG); Kpn2I (TCCGGA); MluI (ACGCGT); NotI (GCGGCCGC); NsbI (TGCGCA); PauI (GCGCGC); PdiI (GCCGGC); Pfl23II (CGTACG); Psp1406I (AACGTT); PvuI (CGATCG); SalI (GTCGAC); SmaI (CCCGGG); smuI (CCCGC); TaiI (ACGT); or TauI (GCSGC).

methylation-sensitive arbitrarily primed PCR (Liang G, et al. (2002) Identification of DNA methylation differences during tumorigenesis by methylation-sensitive arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction. Methods 27(2):150-5);

sequencing of sodium bisulfate-induced modifications of genomic DNA (Frommer M, et al. (1992) A genomic sequencing protocol that yields a positive display of 5-methylcytosine residues in individual DNA strands);

methylation-specific PCR based on differential hybridization of PCR primer to DNA initially modified by bisulfite treatment (Herman J G, et al. (1996) Methylation-specific PCR: A novel PCR assay for methylation status of CpG islands. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:9821-26; Fan X, et al. (Improvement of the methylation specific PCR technical conditions for the detection of p16 promoter hypermethylation in small amounts of tumor DNA. Oncology Rep 9:181-3); or

methylation-sensitive single nucleotide primer extension based on bisulfate-modification of DNA followed by differential incorporation of labelled nucleotides to a primer that is designed to hybridise immediately upstream of a methylation site (Gonzalgo and Jones (1997) Rapid quantitation of methylation differences at specific sites using methylation-sensitive single nucleotide primer extension (Ms-SNuPe) Nucleic Acids Research 25:2529-31).

In a preferred embodiment, the DNA methylation analysis comprises microarray analysis.

Methylation of genomic sequences can be determined by using both methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme analysis, and genomic sequencing. Various restriction enzymes are available that digest demethylated sequences, while leaving methylated sequences intact. An advantage of methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme analysis is that it produces DNA fragments that have 5′ and 3′ ends that were demethylated at the time of digestion. As a result it is a quick method of localizing demethylated sequences within a particular restriction sequence within a larger DNA sequence, such as a locus, chromosome, or even a whole genome. Methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme analysis, as well as examples of various methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes, are described in greater detail below.

Methylation-sensitive DNA sequencing, while not as quick a method as restriction enzyme analysis, can provide specific sequence information with regards to any methylation site, regardless of its inclusion within a restriction enzyme site. Maxam and Gilbert chemical cleavage sequencing protocols have been modified and developed to determine methylation status of sequences within a gene, with the absence of a band in all tracks of a sequencing gel indicating the presence of a 5-methylcytosine residue (Church and Gilbert (1984) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81:1991-95; Saluz and Jost (1989) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:2602-6; Pfeifer G P, et al. (1989) Science 246:810-13).

Another method of methylation-sensitive DNA sequencing involves exposing genomic DNA to sodium bisulfite (Frommer M, et al. (1992) A genomic sequencing protocol that yields a positive display of 5-methylcytosine residues in individual DNA strands) under conditions where cytosine residues are converted to uracil residues, while 5-methylcytosine residues remain nonreactive. One or both strands of the bisulfite-modified genomic DNA can then be PCR amplified using pairs of strand specific primers. As the bisulfite reaction protocol produces single DNA strands that can no longer achieve 100% complementary basepairing (for example reacting double stranded DNA consisting of 5′-TCTC-3′ base paired to 5′-GAGA-3′ with sodium bisulfite yields single strands of 5′-TUTU-3′ and 5′-GAGA-3′ such that 100% complementary base pairing can no longer be achieved), pairs of PCR primers can be designed such that they anneal in a strand-specific fashion and produce PCR products for each of the single bisulfite-modified DNA strands. The PCR products can then be subject to any combination of assays available to skilled persons including, without limitation, sequencing, cloning, methylation-specific PCR, Ms-SNuPe, or microarrays. Bisulfite-modified DNA templates can be conveniently produced using the EZ DNA methylation Kit™ developed by Zymo Research.

The combination of methylation-specific technology and array technology may be particularly useful for high throughput applications. For example, but not wishing to be limiting, fragments of bisulfite-modified DNA could be analysed using microarrays having probes that were specific for identified hypomethylated sequences. As another example, an array of primers could be developed for analysing each potential demethylation site by Ms-SNuPe assay within a DNA sequence, such as a locus, chromosome, or even a whole genome.

The techniques as described above may be employed in the methods of the present invention as described herein and throughout. Further, the techniques and methods as described can also be used in diagnosis of psychosis-associated diseases such as, without limitation, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. For example, but not to be considered limiting in any manner, once one or more than one hypo- or hyper-methylated sequence has been correlated with a disease state, DNA obtained from a subject having the disease can be treated with sodium bisulfite, followed by Ms-SNuPe or methylation-specific PCR using primers that are specific for the correlated hypo- or hyper-methylated sequence(s). As another example, diagnosis of disease can be achieved by digesting DNA, from a diseased sample, with a methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme that yields a different size fragment when digesting DNA from a diseased sample compared to DNA obtained from a normal sample; determination of the disease-specific restriction fragment size can be achieved through any standard method including, Southern analysis.

It will be understood that diagnostic methods of the present invention may be used to identify or confirm bipolar disorder or schizophrenia in a subject, or may be used to identify a predisposition of a subject to develop bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. As such, the diagnostic methods of the present invention encompass pre-diagnosis of bipolar disorder and/or schizophrenia.

Accordingly, the present invention is also directed to a method of determining the risk of a subject having or developing a psychosis-associated disease, for example, but not limited to bipolar disorder or schizophrenia comprising a) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from the subject; b) determining the methylation status of one or more epigenetic markers in the genomic DNA sample from the subject, and; C) comparing the methylation status of the one or more epigenetic markers in the subject to the methylation status of a control group of epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease, for example, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia wherein the presence of one or more epigenetic markers having substantially similar or identical methylation profiles are indicative of an increased risk of the subject having or developing a psychosis-associated disease, for example, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.

The strength of correlation between the presence of a particular epigenetic marker with a particular methylation profile and bipolar disorder or schizophrenia may vary. The strength of correlation can be expressed in terms of percentage of true positives (the number of people who develop bipolar disease or schizophrenia divided by the number of people who test positive for the marker). The diagnostic methods of the present invention can be successfully used in cases where strength of correlation between disease and epigenetic marker is lower than 100%, and could be as low as 50%, 40%, 30% or 20%, or even lower. The strength of correlation that is required for successful use of the diagnostic methods of the invention may depend on several factors that can be ascertained by persons skilled in the art, one of these factors being the strength of correlation provided by diagnostic methods that are available in the marketplace. For example, in a disease where no diagnostic method is currently available the diagnostic methods of the present invention may be useful even if providing a strength of correlation that is lower than 20%. Persons skilled in the art will recognize, that strength of correlation may include other factors in addition to the percentage of true positives, for example, a percentage of false positives (the number of people who do not develop a disease divided by the number of people who test positive). Again, as was the case for the desired percentage of true positives, the percentage of false positives that can be tolerated may depend on the number of false positives being generated by commercially available diagnostic methods.

Any biological sample that provides genomic DNA may be employed in the methods of the present invention. For example, but not to be considered limiting in any manner, samples that comprise genomic DNA may be derived from epithelial tissue, exocrine gland, endocrine gland, connective tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, blood, muscle tissue comprising smooth, skeletal or cardiac muscle tissue, nervous tissue comprising, but not limited to brain tissue, sperm and the like. Samples comprising germ cell genomic DNA are particularly preferred if additional information concerning the ability of the epigenetic sequence to transmit from one generation to the next is desired.

DNA can be extracted from the samples using standard techniques, known in the art, for isolating DNA from various samples such as cells, tissues, or organs, or other suitable specimens. Standard techniques for isolating DNA have are disclosed in reference textbooks or manuals such as, but not limited to Sambrook, Fritsch, and Maniatis, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (1989), Cold Spring Harbor.

The method as defined above may further comprise the step of identifying one or more genes associated with the epigenetic marker(s), for example, but not limited to one or more genes upstream and/or downstream of the epigenetic marker(s). Techniques for analysing expression profiles of surrounding genes including, but not limited to, Northern, ELISA, reporter construct assays, microarray assay of RNA levels, dot blots, quantitative PCR, are well known to persons skilled in the art. Any number of standard and available techniques may be used to determine the genes proximal to an epigenetic marker.

The present invention also provides one or more epigenetic markers associated with psychosis-associated diseases, for example, but not limited to bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. In a preferred embodiment, but without wishing to be limiting, the markers are identified by the method as described herein.

The present invention also provides one or more epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease, for example, but not limited to bipolar disease, or schizophrenia wherein each of said one or more markers comprises at least one methylated cytosine. In an alternate embodiment, but not to be limiting, it is also contemplated that the one or more epigenetic markers may not comprise a methylated cytosine.

The present invention also provides a nucleotide sequence array comprising one or more epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease, for example, bipolar disease or schizophrenia. In a further embodiment, which is not meant to be limiting in any manner, the present invention provides one or more nucleotide sequence arrays, wherein each array consists of a plurality of epigenetic markers associated with bipolar disease or schizophrenia.

In a further embodiment, the present invention provides a set of epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease, for example, but not limited to bipolar disease or schizophrenia, the markers comprising a plurality of nucleotide sequences that are differentially epigenetically modified and that are positively associated with the psychosis-associated disease. In a preferred embodiment, the set of epigenetic markers provides an improved correlation of association with bipolar disorder and/or schizophrenia as compared to a single epigenetic marker.

The present invention will be further illustrated in the following examples.

We have shown that there is large epigenetic variation in germ cells and propose without wishing to be bound by theory or limiting in any manner, that this variation may be required if epigenetic signals are involved in heritable diseases. Inherited epigenetic misregulation of genes, or epimutations, may contribute in whole or in part to the unexplained heritability of many non-medelian diseases. An epimutation could occur in any gene as a germline event that predisposes an individual to disease and can be transmitted to offspring. Such an epimutation, for example, but not limited to, methylation of a specific disease-related gene promoter may be present in the mature sperm of an affected individual or “carrier”.

Example 1 Intra and Inter-Individual Epigenetic Variation in Human Germ Cells

The intra- and inter-individual epigenetic variation detectable in mature sperm of healthy individuals was estimated. For this, two different laboratory strategies were employed. The first approach focussed on promoter regions of several disease related genes, such as PSEN1, PSEN2, BRCA1, BRCA2, DM1 and HD, in healthy individuals, using bisulphite modification based mapping of methylated cytosines, and measured epigenetic “distances” between individuals. The second strategy was to perform a microarray-based epigenetic profiling of sperm DNA using a CpG island microarray, which provides genome-wide information on methylation variability across different unique and repetitive DNA sequences. Several loci of interest identified in the microarray experiments were further investigated using methylation sensitive single nucleotide polymorphism extension reaction (MS-SNuPE).

Materials and Methods

Samples

Two sperm sample sets were used in this study. The first sample set was received from the Fairfax Cryobank, Genetics & IVF Institute (Fairfax, Va.) and consisted of 25 sperm samples from healthy Caucasian sperm donors with an average age of 27 yr (22-35 yr.). The second set of sperm samples was collected at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (Toronto, Canada) from 21 healthy Caucasian individuals with an average age of 39 yr (24-56 yr.). This study was approved by an institutional ethics board, and informed consent was obtained for all participants. Some aspects of sperm DNA data analysis required a non-sperm tissue of reference, and for this purpose post-mortem brain tissues were used. These brain samples were from 22 Caucasian males with an average age at death of 46 yr (31-66 yr). Extraction of DNA was performed using standard salt and phenol/chloroform extraction as known in the art.

Bisulphite Modification-Based Mapping of Methylated Cytosines

Bisulphite modification-based mapping of methylated cytosines was performed as described (22). Briefly, genomic DNA (700 ng) was digested with BglII (Fermentas) for 1 hour at 37° C., denatured at 100° C. for 5 min, chilled on ice, and then incubated at 50° C. for 15 minutes in 0.3M NaOH. The DNA was then mixed with 2% LMP agarose (SeaPlaque Agarose, FMC) and dropped into ice-cold mineral oil to form 7 beads of approximately 10 μL and finally the beads were placed into a freshly prepared solution containing 2.5 M sodium bisulphite (pH 5.0) plus 1 mM hydroquinone (both from Sigma). The beads were then incubated on ice for 30 minutes followed by incubation at 50° C. for 3.5 hrs. The beads were washed in four changes of TE (pH 8.0) for one hour and then desulphonated in 0.2 M NaOH for 30 min. Following desulphonation the beads were washed a second time in three changes of TE for 30 mM. Prior to amplification the beads were washed in H₂O for 30 mins. PCR amplification of the target sequences consisted of 5 μL of agarose beads containing the bisulphite treated DNA, 2 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 0.4 μM each of forward and reverse primer, 250 ng/mL BSA, 2.5 U Taq polymerase (New England Biolabs) in 1×PCR buffer to a total volume of 50 μL. PCR was performed using either a semi-nested or fully nested approach with the first PCR consisting of one cycle of 97° C. for 4 min, 53° C. for 2 min and 72° C. for 2 minutes, followed by 24 cycles of 94° C. for 45 s, 53° C. for 1 min and 72° C. for 1 min The second PCR used 5 μL of the first PCR as template and consisted of one cycle of 97° C. for 2 min, 53° C. for 2 min and 72° C. for 1 min, followed by 24 cycles of 94° C. for 45 sec, 55° C. for 45 sec and 72° C. for 1 min. CpG islands in the 5′ promoter sequences were analyzed in 6 genes: PSEN1 (Entrez gene GeneID: 5663; chr14:72,672,525-72,673,163), PSEN2 (GeneID: 5664; chr1:223,365,273-223,365,990), BRCA1 (GeneID: 672; chr17:38,530,561-38,531,181), BRCA2 (GeneID: 675; chr13:31,787,367-31,788,153), HD (GeneID: 3064; chr4:3,113,281-3,113,816), DM1 (GeneID: 1760; chr19:50,964,670-50,965,254). An intronic CpG island within the CDH13 gene was also analysed by bisulphite genomic sequencing (GeneID: 1012; chr16:81,218,597-81,218,988). Nucleotide positions are according to May 2004 Genome (hg17) version.

The primers used for amplification of bisulphite modified DNA fragments were:

For BRCA1: prBRCA1_for (SEQ ID NO: 1) (5′-gagtagaggttagagggtaggt-3′), prBRCA1_rev1 (SEQ ID NO: 2) (5′-caaaacatattccaattcctatcac-3′), prBRCA1_rev2 (SEQ ID NO: 3) (5′-tcaatacccccaacctaatcctc-3′). For BRCA2: prBRCA2_for (SEQ ID NO: 4) (5′-gggggatttggagtaggtatagg-3′), prBRCA2_rev1 (SEQ ID NO: 5) (5′-cacttccccaaaacaacaatattcc-3′), prBRCA2_rev2 (SEQ ID NO: 6) (5′-aacccactaccaccaccactaacc-3′). For PSEN1: prPSEN1for_1 (SEQ ID NO: 7) (5′-gatttattgagtggtgggagag-3′), prPSEN1for_2 (SEQ ID NO: 8) (5′-tgataggtgttaaatttaggatgg-3′), prPSEN1rev (SEQ ID NO: 9) (5′-cccctcatcttttaaaacacc-3′). For PSEN2: prPSEN2_for (SEQ ID NO: 10) (5′-ggggtggagagaggagagtgt-3′), prPSEN2_rev1 (SEQ ID NO: 11) (5′-aaatacaattacttcactcaacacc-3′), prPSEN2_rev2 (SEQ ID NO: 12) (5′-aactctataacctcaatttatcatc-3′). For HD: prHDfor_1 (SEQ ID NO: 13) (5′-ggttttttggttagttattggtagag-3′), prHDfor_2 (SEQ ID NO: 14) (5′-gtaggttagggttgttaattatgttgg-3′), prHDrev_1 (SEQ ID NO: 15) (5′-caatacaacaactcctcaaccacaacc-3′). For DM1: prDM1for_1 (SEQ ID NO: 16) (5′-gtggatgggtaaattgtaggtttgg-3′), prDM1rev_1 (SEQ ID NO: 17) (5′-aacattcccaactacaaaaaccatc-3′), prDM1rev_2 (SEQ ID NO: 18) (cttttcctcccccaaccctaattc-3′). For CDH13 (clone 44g5 on the CpG island microarray): CDH13 44g5F1 (SEQ ID NO: 19) (5′-ataaaatttaagttaggatgggagatatag-3′); CDH13 44g5R1 (SEQ ID NO: 20) (5′-ataaataaaccaaaacaatactttaccta-3′); CDH13 44g5F2 (SEQ ID NO: 21) (5′-tttggtatttagtagttgtttaataaagtt-3′); CDH13 44g5R2 (SEQ ID NO: 22) (5′-tacaaaatatcatactctaatcactaaacc-3′).

PCR products were electrophoresed on an agarose gel, DNA fragments were excised, cleaned using Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen), and cloned into the pGEM-T vector (Promega). 30 clones from each PCR product (locus/individual) were sequenced. In order to evaluate the degree of intraindividual variation, an additional 30 clones were sequenced from separate bisulphite reactions in 5 cases: two BRCA1, one BRCA2, and two PSEN2. A total of 1,020 clones were analyzed which required over 1,500 sequencing reactions as some longer fragments had to be sequenced from both ends.

Analyses of DNA Methylation Variation in Bisulphite Modification-Based Experiments

The degree of epigenetic diversity within and across the individuals was evaluated using the concept of epigenetic “distance” (23). Each of the 30 sequenced clones was binary coded, with 0 for an unmethylated cytosine and 1 for a methylated cytosine. Each clone was therefore represented by a row vector of n “0” and “1” where n is the number of cytosines in the tested region.

Estimation of intra-individual variation. Unique methylation profiles were identified for each set of 30 clones. For example, a set of clones 0101, 0101, 0111, and 1100 exhibits three types of methylation profiles (1/2, 3, and 4), and therefore the proportion of unique methylation profiles is 3/4. This was performed for every set of 30 clones, and then the mean and SD of the proportion of unique clones across individuals were calculated for each locus. In the second round of analysis, because of possible imperfect C to T conversion of bisulphite treatment, two clones different by a single position were called identical. Using the above example, profiles 0101 and 0111 are now treated as identical, and the degree of uniqueness is 2/4. In the final analysis, the tolerance was increased to 2 differences, i.e. the clones that exhibited two or fewer differences were treated as identical.

Comparison of DNA methylation “distances” across individuals. The average methylation intensity vector for each locus/individual was calculated from the sum of the methylated cytosines divided by 30 for each different cytosine position. The degree of epigenetic dissimilarity was measured by Euclidean distance using the following equation:

${D_{12} = \left( {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}\; \left( {m_{1i} - m_{2i}} \right)^{2}} \right)^{1/2}},$

where m1 is the average methylation vector of individual 1, m2 is the average methylation vector of individual 2, and d₁₂ is the Euclidean DNA methylation distance between individuals 1 and 2. The larger the distance, the more dissimilar the two individuals' methylation profiles are to each other. With this metric, we calculated the distances between all possible pairs of individuals for each promoter locus of BRCA1, BRCA2, HD, DM1, PSEN1 and PSEN2. To test statistical significance of methylation differences the following analysis was performed: for each locus, all clones from all individuals were pooled together, and two sets of 30 randomly selected clones from the pool formed the methylation profiles of two pseudoindividuals. The epigenetic distance between the two pseudo-individuals was then calculated with the same procedure as above, and this procedure was repeated 100,000 times generating 100,000 distances, the density distribution of which was plotted and the mean and +/−2SD were calculated. The (one tailed) p-value of a distance was then obtained by finding the area under the distribution curve from the left up to the calculated distance. An epigenetic distance in two real individuals with p<0.05 (i.e. >2SD) indicates that difference in DNA methylation of two individuals is statistically significant.

Microarray-Based DNA Methylation Analysis

Microarrays. Genome-wide epigenetic profiling was performed using the 12,192 CpG island microarrays (24) purchased from University Health Network Microarray Facility, Toronto (http://data.microarrays.ca/cpg/index.htm).

Enrichment of Unmethylated DNA.

We used our developed technology for enrichment of the unmethylated DNA fraction and epigenetic profiling described in detail in (25). The general principle of the DNA methylation profiling consists of interrogation of the unmethylated fraction of genomic DNA on the microarray. Intensity of hybridization inversely correlates with the DNA methylation status at the genomic locus homologous to a specific DNA fragment on the array. Briefly, methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes were used to digest 1 mg of genomic DNA, and two enzyme scenarios were used in this project. First, sperm DNA samples from 25 individuals were analysed using methylation sensitive enzymes HpaII, Hin6I and AciI (designated sperm DNA-HHA array set). This enzyme “cocktail” strategy, however, is not ideal for GC-rich regions such as CpG islands as these three enzymes would generate DNA fragments too small for efficient amplification and hybridisation. Therefore, a single digestion approach with HpaII alone was used on a second set of sperm DNA samples from 21 individuals (designated sperm DNAHpaII array set). DNA adaptors (annealing product of two primers: U-CG1a: 5′-cgtggagactgactaccagat-3′ and U-CG1b: 5′-agttacatctggtagtc agtctcca-3′) were ligated to the restricted DNA fragments, followed by treatment with McrBC (New England Biolabs) that will cleave the fragments containing two or more methylated cytosines thereby further enriching the unmethylated fraction. Adaptor-PCR amplification of the ligated products using primers complementary to the adaptor sequence consisted of 250 ng of ligated DNA, 2.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM aminoallyl-dNTPs [15 mM aminoallyl-dUTP, 10 mM dTTP and 25 mM each dCTP, dGTP and dATP], 200 pmol primer U-CG1b, 5 U Taq polymerase (New England Biolabs) in 1×PCR reaction-buffer (Sigma) to a final volume of 100 μl. PCR conditions are adjusted in such a way that only fragments less than 1.5 kb (i.e. short, digested and therefore unmethylated) will amplify preferentially. Cycling consisted of 72° C. for 5 min, 95° C. 1 min, then 25 cycles of 95° C. for 40 sec and 68° C. for 2 min 30 sec, followed by a final extension of 72° C. for 5 min. Equal amounts of amplicons from each sample were mixed to form the pooled control, which was labeled with Cy3 and co-hybridized against each individual amplicon labeled with Cy5. Hybridization was performed at 42° C. using standard procedure (25).

For comparison to the sperm DNA methylation profiles, DNA samples from post-mortem brains of 22 individuals who did not have any known brain disease were subjected to the same microarray-based DNA methylation profiling using a single digestion approach with HpaII (designated brain DNA-HpaII array set).

Microarray Data Processing and Analysis.

Methylation differences between the individuals and the pooled control were analyzed by the ratio of hybridization intensities of Cy5 (individual samples) over Cy3 (pooled control). As we have learned from our previous analyses of arrays used for DNA methylation analysis, such ratios show normal distribution, therefore the data can be treated similarly to classical microarray experiments. The array data were normalised in two steps, firstly, a global intensity normalization to adjust the Cy5:Cy3 ratio to 1:1 across the entire array, followed by block-by-block LOWESS normalization. The data was trimmed to remove spots with ambiguous genome locations, including spots with no sequence or annotation (647 spots), spots with >30% repetitive elements (2706 spots), and translocation hotspots (633 spots). The spots for which the microarray clones represented identical sequences were averaged resulting in approximately 4970 unique loci. Coefficient of variation (CV) was calculated for each remaining spot by the standard deviation in Cy5/Cy3 divided by the mean of the Cy5/Cy3 across all individuals. The sperm DNA-HHA experiments were performed in duplicate and the data were averaged ratios. The sperm DNA-HpaII and the brain DNA-HpaII data sets consisted of one array per individual where we opted for increased biological replicates rather than increased technical replicates for the number of microarrays available.

The age covariate analysis for the CpG island microarray experiment was performed by using a correlation coefficient between two series of quantities to measure the linear relationship between the series. Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated between the mean fold-change (log Cy5/Cy3) across individuals and the ages across individuals for each spot on the microarray. A large absolute value (|r|>0.5) of the coefficient indicates that the methylation intensity at the locus covariates with age in a positive or negative way. To test their statistical significance, the age across individuals were permuted, and again, the coefficient was computed using the permuted age series. For each spot, the permutation is repeated 5,000 times to get 5,000 coefficients. The one-tailed p-value of the coefficient is then obtained by finding the fraction of times the coefficients were larger (or smaller) than the original coefficient. Benjamani-Hochberg correction was used to correct for multiple testing. The autocorrelation clustering analysis for the CpG island microarray experiment was performed using the autocorrelation function ACF(x), which measures how strongly two methylation intensities “X” loci apart influence each other.

Measurement of Densities of metC in the Selected Loci

Further analysis of a selected set of DNA fragments identified as the most variable was performed using the methylation sensitive single nucleotide primer extension (MS SNuPE) reaction on the ABI SnapShot platform accommodated for measuring the C/T ratios in the bisulphite treated genomic DNA (26). Briefly, genomic DNA was digested with NdeI (Fermentas) followed by treatment with sodium bisulphite as described above. The loci of interest were amplified using nested PCR.

Typical PCR amplification consisted of 95° C. for 1 min, then 40 cycles of 95° C. for 30 s, 50° C. for 30 s and 72° C. for 40 s, followed by a final extension of 72° C. for 5 min. Quantitative interrogation of bisulphite induced transition C to T at CpG dinucleotides in such amplicons was performed with primers targeted to the CpG dinucleotides within the restriction sites for HpaII, Hin6I or AciI.

Results

Intra- and Inter-Individual DNA Methylation Differences in the Promoters of BRCA1, BRCA2, HD, DM1, PSEN1, and PSEN2

The bisulphite modification-based mapping of methylated cytosines for all of these genes demonstrated that numerous individual clones (representing individual sperm cells) demonstrated quite different DNA methylation profiles within individuals (FIG. 1 a). This was confirmed by the analysis of the degree of uniqueness of DNA methylation profiles (FIG. 1 b). In the case of HD, about 80% of all clones exhibited unique patterns of metC distribution. This estimate did not change dramatically when potential bisulphite modification induced artefacts were taken into account: on average 72% of clones were different from each other when one metC difference was tolerated, and up to 53%—when two differences were allowed. The latter situation is a very conservative estimate of the degree of uniqueness as such a high artefactual C to T non-conversion rate is unrealistic; based on the non-conversion at non CpG sites, which in our experiments was always less than 1%. The lowest degree of intra-individual DNA methylation uniqueness was detected for PSEN2: 36%, 20%, and 13%, for 0, 1, and 2 levels of tolerance, respectively. This analysis of uniqueness is, however, related to the clone length and correlates specifically with the density of CpGs analysed (Pearson R=0.64, 0.93 and 0.98, respectively, for 0, 1 and 2 levels of tolerance), as more methylatable CpG sites allow more opportunity for variation. While the intra-individual analysis can show variability within an individual, significantly variable methylation patterns between individuals were also revealed (FIG. 2). The gene specific results were as follows: BRCA1, N=4, 32 CpGs analyzed, 5/6 pairwise comparisons exhibited statistically significant differences (Average p=2.53E-05); BRCA2, N=4, 36 CpGs, 3/6 pairwise comparisons were significant (Avg p=8.56E-07); PSEN1, N=3, 43 CpGs, 2/3 pairwise comparisons significant (Avg p=1.89E-04); PSEN2, N=5, 45 CpGs, 6/10 pairwise comparisons significant (Avg p=5.11E-03); DM1, N=7, 99 CpGs, 13/21 pairwise comparisons significant (Avg p=5.60E-04), and HD, N=6, 108 CpGs, 12/15 pairwise comparisons were significant (Avg p=1.66E-03). Overall, 67% (41/61) of the pair-wise comparisons were significantly different which suggests a high overall level of inter-individual variability in the methylation patterns of the tested genes. The five cases where 60 sequenced clones were available for BRCA1, BRCA2, and PSEN2, the comparisons were performed using randomly selected two groups of 30 clones (FIG. 2). As a validation of this statistical method the additional sets of 30 clones representing BRCA1, BRCA2, and PSEN2 were compared to the primary sets of 30 clones of the same individuals. In all cases the result (cf. pairs 55′ and 66′ in FIG. 2) showed that their profiles were not different, as expected since they are from the same individual.

DNA Methylation Differences Detected by the CpG Island Microarrays

This CpG island microarray contains 12,192 DNA fragments, however, unique sequences are represented by 4,970 distinct loci of which only about half met the commonly used the criteria for CpG island: GC content of 50% or greater, length greater than 200 bp and observed/expected CG dinucleotide ratio greater than 0.627. While the rest of the unique loci failed to meet one or more of these criteria, as described in the Methods section, a two enzyme set—HHA and HpaII—strategy to increase the informativeness of our analysis was adopted.

As a measure of methylation variation we have calculated the coefficient of variation (CV) across individuals for each array set. The CV is calculated by the standard deviation in Cy5/Cy3 ratio divided by the mean of the Cy5/Cy3 ratio, expressed as a percentage. The variation between individuals across the genome ranged from CV 2.1-30.5% (mean=6.7); 0.8-66.2% (mean=9.2); 2.1-97.4% (mean=10.9) for the sperm DNA-HHA; sperm DNA-HpaII and brain DNA-HpaII data sets, respectively (Table 1). The data for each locus was plotted on the genome (FIG. 3; FIG. 8) and is also available on the web as a custom annotation track using the USCS genome browser (FIG. 3 b) (http://www.epigenomics.ca/, the site will be launched in January 2006). FIG. 3 a depicts the sperm DNA-HpaII data set and highlights the highly variable regions on the genome. To assess if this distribution of highly variable spots is non-random, an autocorrelation analysis was performed, however, this did not identify any evidence for autocorrelation, most likely due to the large genomic distance between microarray clones (Avg 0.6 Mb). Other analyses included: testing if the detected variability is confounded by DNA sequence variation, comparison of DNA methylation variation in CpG islands vs non-CpG islands as well as across different classes of repetitive elements, and assessing if DNA methylation variation correlates with the GC content, clone length, or to particular chromosomal cytobands or with any genes of particular biological processes, pathways or molecular functions.

Exclusion of genetic confounding effects: single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and copynumber polymorphisms (CNPs). Any method that relies on restriction enzyme digestion to differentiate between methylated and unmethylated DNA can be influenced by single nucleotide polymorphisms within the enzyme restriction sites. Therefore, from each of the sperm DNA-HHA and sperm DNA-HpaII datasets we selected 150 highly variable loci and 150 conserved loci and performed in silico screening to identify all known SNPs within a 2 kb region of the selected clone that disrupt or create HpaII, Hin6I or AciI enzyme sites for the sperm DNA-HHA data set or just HpaII sites for the sperm DNA-HpaII data set (SNP annotation of the USCS genome browser: http://genome.ucsc.edu/). The c2 analysis revealed no association between the number of potentially disruptive enzyme restriction sites and the degree of variability in either data set (sperm DNA-HHA c2=0.12, p=0.729; and sperm DNA-HpaII c2=1.83, p=0.176). This suggests that the degree of variability in the sperm DNA microarray analysis is more dependent on DNA methylation differences than on DNA sequence differences. Recent reports have identified over 200 copy number polymorphisms (CNPs) that represent large duplications and deletions that contribute significantly to genomic variation between individuals (28-30). Like SNPs, CNPs could simulate DNA methylation variability in the microarray analysis. We have cross-referenced the CNPs identified in these studies with the CpG island microarray loci and identified 25 microarray loci that occur within known CNP regions. These include large CNPs in chromosome 3 (covering the genes OSTalpha, AB018337, UNQ3030, BC015560 and DLG1), chromosome 16 (BC008967, XYLT1, ARL61P, MIR16, MGC16943 and CDR2) and chromosome 17 (AY302137, BHD, RAIL FLJ20308, TOP3A and SMCR8) and smaller CNPs on chromsomes 1 (NEGR1), 2 (AK024244), 6 (RDBP), 8 (TSTA3), 9 (LHX2), 11 (TNNT3) and 14 (AK090461). Microarray results for these genes listed could therefore be influenced by deletions or duplications as much as by methylation variability, however, none of these loci appear in the list of highly variable (>90th percentile) loci.

CpG Island Analysis

Not all DNA fragments on the CpG island microarray met the criteria for CpG islands. The list of loci were divided into CpG island or not CpG islands (Table 2). A significantly increased DNA methylation variability was found in loci defined as CpG islands in the sperm DNA-HpaII data set (t-test, p=4.92E-06) and this was exemplified by a bias towards CpG islands in the 90th percentile (highly variable regions) (c2=24.34, p=5.81E-07). In addition, when the CpG islands were split into promoter CpG islands and CpG islands not associated with known gene promoters, significantly higher variability in promoter CpG islands (c2=11.44, p=4.87 E-04) was detected. Analyses of methylation variability with other measures including GC percent alone and clone length, however, did not reveal any association. No evidence for higher DNA methylation variation was detected in the promoter CpG islands in the brain-HpaII data set and there also was no association with SNPs. Therefore, this sperm DNA-HpaII experiment appears to have revealed genuine increased methylation differences in the promoter CpG islands.

Cytoband Analysis

It has been well described that different cytobands could have evolved in different ways and the genes within each band could have evolutionary similarities (31,32). As these bands are based on GC content and Alu content, among other things, we sought to identify if methylation variability was one of the aspects that showed similarities within bands. The CpG island microarray annotation includes the division of loci into different cytobands including G bands (gneg) and the four classes of R bands (gpos25, gpos50, gpos75 and gpos100). Mean CV for all of the loci within each of these cytobands were calculated and a Student's t-test was performed to identify statistically significant differences. In each of the data sets marginally significant association with certain cytobands were identified. In the sperm-HHA data set significant decrease in variability between gpos75 band loci (CV=6.51) and the other three R bands gpos25, gpos50 and gpos100 (Avg CV=6.83, Avg p=0.023) were detected. In the sperm-HpaII data set gpos25 exhibited lower degree of methylation compared to gpos50 (CV=8.97 and CV=9.50, respectively; p=0.041). While the significance of these statistical tests diminished when corrected for multiple testing, the result is suggestive of an increase in variability in the Alu rich cytobands, such as the gpos50 and gpos100 cytobands compared to the Alu poorer bands gpos25 and gpos75.

Age-Dependent DNA Methylation Changes in the Sperm

Methylation dynamics using age (sperm DNA-HHA age range: 22-35 yr; sperm DNA-HpaII age range: 24-56 yr) as a covariate was investigated. In the sperm DNA-HpaII and sperm DNA-HHA datasets 105 and 8 loci were found, respectively, whose absolute correlation coefficients were larger than 0.5 and p-value <0.05. Numerous genes were identified in the germ cell data that corresponded to genes involved in spermatogenesis and development (e.g. INSM1, TZFP, EED), neurogenesis (e.g CALM1, STMN2, ARHGEF9, ARX) or disease related genes (e.g. MAF, DCC, CDH13). A number of examples are shown in FIG. 4. The lists of genes for each data set is provided (see Tables 2A,B).

DNA Methylation in the Repetitive Elements

All the above analyses were performed on unique DNA sequences, however, the CpG island microarray also contains a large number of clones containing repetitive elements, which as a rule are heavily methylated (33). While it is difficult to directly distinguish between methylation- and copy number differences, one possible approach is to compare methylation of repetitive elements in the sperm to that in other tissues. For this reason, the sperm DNA-HpaII data set was analyzed in comparison to the brain DNA-HpaII data set. This analysis revealed the average overall repetitive element CV of 10.5 in the sperm compared to the overall average CV in non-repetitive elements of 9.6. The breakdown of CV for each type of repetitive elements represented on the microarray is shown in FIG. 5. This analysis identified that satellite DNA repeats were statistically more variable than other repetitive elements in the sperm DNA-HpaII data set (p=6.12E-17). In comparison, this effect was far less pronounced in the brain DNAHpaII data set (p=0.0027) (FIG. 5 a). When the satellite repeats were further separated into specific repeat classes, a number of repeat classes, predominantly centromeric or pericentromeric satellite repeats, were-identified as responsible for this increase in inter-individual variability including (GAATTC)n (CV=18.5) ALR/Alpha (human alpha repetitive DNA, CV=25.0), CER (human D22Z3 centromeric repetitive DNA; CV=18.7) and HSATII repeats (human satellite II DNA, CV=34.8) (FIG. 5 b).

Validation of the Microarray Data Using Bisulphite Modification-Based metC/C Analysis

For validation of the microarray data 12 loci that were detected as variable in the CpG island microarray analysis (Table 3) were analysed using the methylation sensitive single nucleotide primer extension (MSSNuPE) reaction on the ABI SNapShot platform 26 at the CpG dinucleotides in the HpaII as well as Hin6I or AciI restriction sites. Initially such loci were selected based on increased variability (>90th percentile) in the sperm DNA-HHA data set; in addition, a number of these loci were also highly variable in the sperm DNA-HpaII data set (CDH13, SCAM1, MKL2, and DIRAS3). Each of the 12 loci selected were initially resequenced to confirm the identity of the sequence. DNA samples from 11 individuals were treated with sodium bisulphite, PCR amplified, and primer extension reactions were performed to interrogate 65 CpG dinucleotides within the 12 sequences. Examples of 6 loci are presented in FIG. 6. This analysis revealed variable levels of methylation differences in at least one enzyme restriction site in 11/12 loci tested. It should be noted here that DNA methylation differences in a single restriction site may be sufficient to generate significant differences in the microarray analysis. Only one locus (DIRAS3) showed no methylation differences between the 11 individuals, however, we were only able to test 5 out of 20 CpG sites at this locus, thus methylation variation in the untested CpG sites cannot be ruled out. To assess the replicability of the assay the MS-SnuPE/SNaPshot experiment was repeated on 5 loci in 5 individuals. Consistently with published data (26), the results in this second round of experiments were within 5% of the first experiment on average (range 1.7-9.9%).

Finally, as further validation of the MS-SNuPE method and microarray results we have performed bisulphite genomic sequencing of 30 clones from 5 individuals on a locus within the gene encoding cadherin 13, CDH13, (UHNhscpg0004063). This analysis revealed a clear-cut bimodal distribution of epialleles, with the majority of clone sequences being either mostly methylated across all 16 CpG dinucleotides tested or predominantly unmethylated. In addition, this sequencing analysis identified a single nucleotide polymorphism, C/G; out of the 5 individuals, one was homozygous C, one homozygous G and the other three were C/G heterozygous (FIG. 7). Of particular interest is the substantially higher density of methylated cytosines on the G allele, while C alleles predominantly exhibit low degree of methylation. Counting all clones across all 5 individuals together it was found that 67/87 (77%) of the sequences with the G allele were methylated in comparison to only 14/63 (22%) sequences containing the C allele that were methylated. (c2=40.4, p=2.08E-10). Given that the microarray analysis suggested that promoter CpG islands were significantly more variable we also performed bisulphite genomic sequencing of the CDH13 promoter CpG island which was not represented on the CpG microarray. This analysis, however, found that the promoter CpG island of CDH13 is predominantly unmethylated in all individuals with only solitary methylation sites present in 1-3 clones for each of the individuals.

Discussion

The present example provides an in-depth analysis of epigenetic variability in the germline. The results suggest that i) male germline exhibits locus-, cell-, and age-dependant DNA methylation differences, and ii) DNA methylation variation is significant across unrelated individuals that by far exceed DNA sequence variation. These findings are interesting from both basic molecular biology and biomedical points of view. First, our study contributes to the understanding of epigenetic peculiarities of gene regulatory regions in the germline. It has been generally accepted that CpG islands are predominantly unmethylated (34), which implies that DNA methylation differences would not be expected there. From our studies, even relatively low densities of methylated cytosines in the CpG islands are sufficient to generate unique epigenetic profiles in the DNA regions that do not exhibit any DNA sequence variation, both in different cells of the same individual and also across individuals. Fine mapping of methylated cytosines of relatively short DNA fragments of BRCA1, BRCA2, PSEN1, PSEN2, DM1, and HD suggest that each sperm cell is unique not only in terms of DNA sequence but also in epigenomic profile, and variation of the latter by far exceeds the former.

At the genome wide level, unexpectedly, promoter CpG islands exhibited larger inter-individual variation compared to other single copy DNA sequences, including the non-promoter CpG islands. This epigenetic phenomenon seems to be discordant with a general rule that functionally important loci exhibit a low degree of DNA variation, as is seen in the case of SNPs being less common in promoters and exonic sequences than in introns and intergenic regions. In addition, promoter CpG-rich regions are often highly conserved between species, for instance the mouse genome contains 15,500 CpG islands of which approximately 10,000 are highly conserved (35). Therefore, if the epigenetic variability were just “noise” of little functional relevance, one would expect more variability in these less biologically important regions such as introns and intergenic sequences. Evidence for the opposite—increased epigenetic variability in the regions that directly control gene activity—may indicate some peculiarities of DNA methylation machinery during gametogenesis that may or may not be of functional importance in the somatic cells.

Our study has also identified a larger degree of inter-individual variability of centromeric satellite repeats. Although we cannot strictly rule out the possibility of DNA copy differences, which are common in centromeric satellite repeats (36), the fact that the germ cell data set showed substantially larger CV in comparison to the brain DNA data set suggest that germline satellite methylation differences in the germ cells could be a genuine biological phenomenon. Inter-individual methylation variability in satellite repeats is consistent with current knowledge (37) and may contribute to phenotypic variability in ICF syndrome, a disease that is associated with methylation defects in pericentromeric satellites (38). In addition, microRNAs (or siRNAs) regulate gene expression, heterochromatin formation and genome stability and often arise from demethylation of tandem repeats that are common in pericentromeric sequences (39). Therefore, inter-individual methylation variability in tandem repeats that give rise to microRNAs could also be involved in the variability in gene expression that results in inherited phenotypic variation. A recent study has described increased interindividual variability in the methylation of Alu repeats (40) in whole blood DNA. However, Sandovici et al noted that the parental origin differences in methylation were identified only for Alu elements in pericentromeric chromosomal bands, which is consistent with our results. Second, epigenetic variation within—and across—germline samples could be of significant interest in human morbid genetics that thus far has nearly exclusively concentrated on DNA sequence differences. Inherited epigenetic variation may provide the basis for new hypotheses and experimental designs in the studies of various human diseases where the traditional DNA sequence based studies are reaching the limit of explanatory power. For example, although Huntington's disease is caused by trinucleotide repeat expansion in the HD gene, the correlation between the number of trinucleotide repeats and age of onset for later HD cases (>50 years) is low (41). Epigenetic status of HD promoter region may contribute to the steady state HD mRNA levels and therefore the production of toxic polyglutamine-containing proteins.

HD genes containing identical trinucleotide repeat expansion but differential DNA methylation and chromatin compaction in the promoter region may exhibit significant differences in terms of their pathogenic potential reflected in the age at disease onset and severity.

The role of differential germline epigenetic modification in complex non-Mendelian disease may be even more important. Despite significant effort over the last several decades, DNA sequence-based risk factors have been uncovered in only a small fraction of complex disease, such as familial breast cancer and early onset Alzheimer's disease. For a number of complex diseases, genetic epidemiological studies showed that DNA sequence differences account for only a small portion of phenotypic variance among relatives, while the substantial remaining fraction of phenotypic differences (in some cancers 58%-82% (42) are typically attributed to environment. Identification of causal environmental factors is very difficult because methodologically impeccable designs in epidemiological studies, as a rule, cannot be applied to humans (43). At the same time, there is an increasing body of evidence that environmental factors play a minimal role in a number of complex traits and disease conditions (44). In this context, epigenetic variation in the germline arises as a new molecular mechanism that may help understanding complex phenotypes that are not the outcome of DNA sequence variation or differential environment. The recent finding of germline epimutations of MLH1 in two individuals affected with multiple cancers (11) provides a good starting point for a systematic search for disease specific epimutations in the germline.

In our bisulphite modification-based analyses, the overwhelming majority of loci exhibited rather subtle DNA methylation differences (“shades of grey” type), while methylation of the CpG island within the gene encoding cadherin 13, CDH13, is clearly bimodal (“black or white” type). The cadherin gene is a putative mediator of cell-cell interaction in the heart and may act as a negative regulator of neural cell growth. The promoter of this gene is hypermethylated in numerous cancers (45-50). Of particular interest is the finding that DNA methylation profiles are associated with DNA alleles, where the C allele of CDH13 is predominantly unmethylated, while the G allele is predominantly methylated. To our knowledge, thus far, the only other example of a link between DNA sequence and epigenetic codes was demonstrated in Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, where loss of maternal allele-specific methylation was more common on the G allele at T382G SNP (CAGA haplotype) of the differentially methylated region KvDMR151. A number of genes in the sperm exhibited DNA methylation changes that correlate with age (FIG. 4). This finding is particularly interesting in the light of the evidence that older paternal age is associated with the risk for schizophrenia in the offspring (52,53). Although it has been hypothesized that such effects could be due to epigenetic changes in the paternal genome, no locus specific—and age dependent—epigenetic changes in human male germline have been identified thus far. In this study a number of genes that show age-related changes in their DNA methylation have been detected, and such include a number of important developmental genes. The embryonic ectoderm development gene, EED, is a polycomb group gene involved in maintaining the epigenetically regulated repressive state of developmental genes over successive cell generations (54). CTNNA2, or catenin is a neuronal cadherin associated protein and may play a major role in the folding and lamination of the cerebral cortex (55). CALM1, or calmodulin is a key calcium-modulated protein that functions in growth and the cell cycle as well as in signal transduction and the synthesis and release of neurotransmitters. STMN2, or stathmin-like 2 is neuronal growth-associated protein that shares significant amino acid sequence similarity with the phosphoprotein stathmin and CDH13 as described above is the heart cadherin and is hypermethylated in a number of cancers. All the above phenotype related aspects were discussed under the assumption that the epigenetic peculiarities of the germline are at least to some extent reflected in the somatic cells after birth. What proportion and to what extent these inherited epigenetic signals can “survive” the reprogramming that immediately follows fertilization as well as during the later stages of embryogenesis (13,56,57) remains unknown. The methylation clearing is not complete, and on a global DNA level is reduced to about 10% (58,59). That could represent 90% of all methylation for each gene being erased or it could mean 90% of methylated genes are completely cleared and 10% of genes retain their methylation or there could be numerous combinations of the two. It is also unknown what happens to the histone modifications through these phases of loss of DNA methylation signals. Since modifications of DNA and histones are codependent, even if the DNA methylation signals are erased, the histones may be able to carry on specific epigenetic messages to the next stage until the DNA gets remethylated. This concept of cellular memory through histone modifications has been demonstrated for polycomb group proteins through H3K27 trimethylation (60).

The second aspect that will determine biological importance of the epigenetic variation in the germline is trans-generational epigenetic inheritance and whether complex DNA methylation patterns can be inherited from parents and transmitted to offspring. There is already experimental evidence demonstrating epigenetic meiotic inheritance across different species, such as yeast (61), arabidopsis (62), drosophila (63,64), and mice (20,21). While there is no doubt that transgenerational epigenetic inheritance does exist, it is not clear if this is limited to a few loci or it is a common genome-wide phenomenon.

Example 2 Epigenetic Basis for Bipolar Disorder

In this study DNA methylation profiling using microarray analysis of 20 bipolar disease cases and controls was performed in order to identify potential disease specific epigenetic signals in sperm cells.

Materials and Methods

Samples: Sperm samples were collected at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (Toronto, Canada) from 20 bipolar disorder patients and 20 healthy controls. This study was approved by an institutional ethics board, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. Extraction of DNA was performed using standard salt and phenol/chloroform extraction techniques known in the art.

Microarray analysis: Microarray analysis was performed as previously described in Example 1. Briefly, the unmethylated fraction of DNA was enriched using the method developed in our laboratory (25; 65) and each individual case or control was hybridised to a 12,192 feature CpG island microarray in comparison to a reference sample (pooled controls). Each analysis was performed in triplicate with one dye-swap array. Data from each microarray was normalised (global intensity and Lowess) and log ratio Case/reference or control/reference was calculated. A Students t-test assuming unequal variance was performed to identify significant methylation differences between cases and controls. False Discovery Rate (FDR) was used to correct for multiple testing, using a cutoff of p=0.3 which assumes that 7/10 loci will be true positives.

Results

We have performed DNA methylation microarray analysis comparing sperm cell DNA from 20 bipolar cases to sperm cell DNA from 20 healthy controls. The case vs control t-test identified 582 significant loci (unadjusted P<0.05). When we have applied the FDR multiple correction the number of significant loci (P<0.3) is reduced to 33 loci (Table 4 and FIG. 9). The nucleotides sequences can be obtained from the UHN website http://data.microarrays.ca/cpg/ using the UHNID. The sequences of the 33 loci described above are provided in FIG. 11. This includes CpG islands within genes such as, but not limited to the Neuregulin 1 receptor ERBB4 (FIG. 10) and the histone 1 family member HIST1H3G, among others. Additional information for other loci is provided in Table 5.

As will be appreciated by a person of skill in the art, the p value may be selected to increase or decrease the results contained in the data set obtained by the method of the present invention. However, the implications of using a higher p value (ie p=0.4) are that more of the selected loci are expected to be false positives. Similarly, a lower P value is expected to result in a lower number of false positives. The present invention contemplates using any P-value or a range of P-values.

The methylation differences in bipolar disorder cases compared to controls may be confirmed using one or more alternate methods known in the art, for example, but not limited to bisulphite-modification based analysis. The present study is the first to provide evidence for epimutations in bipolar disorder patients. Accordingly, the subject matter provided herein and throughout is useful for providing methods for identifying one or more epimutations in subjects that may be associated with a disease state, for example, but not limited to bipolar disorder. In addition, the regions of nucleotide sequences that comprise one or more epimutations may serve as useful diagnostic epigenetic biomarkers and can be employed in diagnostic tests and the like.

Example 3 DNA Methylation Changes Associated with Major Psychosis

Epigenetic misregulation is consistent with various non-Mendelian features of major psychosis-associated diseases. In this study 12,192-feature CpG-island microarrays were used to identify DNA methylation changes in the frontal cortex (N=95) and germline (N=40) associated with major psychosis-asscoiated diseases including schizophrenia and bipolar disease. Psychosis-associated brain DNA methylation differences were identified in over 100 loci, including several genes involved in glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission, brain development, and other processes functionally-linked to disease etiology. DNA methylation changes in a significant proportion of these loci correspond to reported changes of steady-state mRNA level associated with psychosis. Gene ontology analysis highlighted epigenetic disruption to loci involved in mitochondrial function, brain development, and stress response. Methylome network analysis uncovered decreased epigenetic modularity in both the brain and the germline of affected individuals, suggesting that systemic epigenetic dysfunction may be associated with major psychosis.

INTRODUCTION

Schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) are etiologically related psychiatric conditions, together termed ‘major psychosis’ (PSY). Studies of PSY have focused primarily on the interplay between genetic and environmental risk factors. Twin and adoption studies highlight a clear inherited component to both disorders (1), but while replicated findings exist for a number of genes, association studies are characterized by non-replication, small effect-sizes, and significant heterogeneity (2). Several epidemiological, clinical, and molecular peculiarities associated with PSY are hard to explain using traditional gene- and environment-based approaches, including the non-complete concordance between monozygotic twins for both SZ (41-65%) and BD (˜60%)(1,3), which cannot be accounted for by only environmental factors (2,4). Other complexities of PSY include a fluctuating disease course with periods of remission and relapse, sexual dimorphism, peaks of susceptibility to disease coinciding with major hormonal rearrangements, and parent-of-origin effects (2). These observations have led to speculation about the importance of epigenetic factors in mediating susceptibility to both SZ and BD2.

Epigenetics refers to the heritable, but reversible, regulation of gene expression mediated principally through modifications of DNA and histones (5). Epigenetic processes are essential for normal cellular development and differentiation, and allow the regulation of gene function through non-mutagenic mechanisms. The impact of DNA methylation on gene activity has been explained by two proven mechanisms. The ‘critical site’ model puts an emphasis on the methylation of specific cytosines in transcription-factor binding sites, reducing binding affinity and thus the transcription of mRNA(6). The ‘methylation density’ model suggests that the proportion of methylated cytosines across a region, rather than at any specific position, controls chromatin conformation and thus the transcriptional potential of the gene(6).

The epigenetic model of PSY is based upon three general principles(2). First, that like the DNA sequence, the epigenetic profile of somatic cells is mitotically inherited, but unlike the DNA sequence epigenetic signals are dynamic. The epigenetic status of the genome is tissue-specific, developmentally-regulated, and influenced by both stochastic and environmental factors. Second, because epigenetic processes regulate gene expression, epigenetic metastability can have profound phenotypic effects. Genes, even those containing no mutations or disease predisposing polymorphisms, may be harmful if not expressed in the appropriate amount, at the right time of the cell cycle or in the right compartment of the nucleus. Third, some epigenetic signals, rather than being reset and erased during gametogenesis, may be transmitted meiotically across generations (7). This has obvious ramifications for the identification of the molecular substrate of inherited predisposition, in which heritable phenotypic variation is assumed to result exclusively from DNA sequence variants.

To date few studies have investigated the role of epigenetic factors in PSY. DNA methylation differences have been reported in the vicinity of both catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)(8) and reelin (RELN)(9), although these findings were not confirmed using fully quantitative methylation profiling methods (10,11). In this article we report findings from a comprehensive epigenomic study of PSY. Using DNA from the frontal cortex, a region previously implicated in the etiology of PSY12, derived from individuals with SZ, BD, and matched controls (CTRL), we examined DNA methylation utilizing two complementary approaches. First, we performed a microarray-based epigenomic scan of PSY using CpG-island microarrays following enrichment of the unmethylated fraction of brain DNA. Second, we performed a hypothesis-driven analysis of DNA methylation across candidate genes for which a priori evidence for a role in the etiology of PSY exists. In addition, to investigate whether epigenetic differences could be observed in the germline, we also used CpG-island microarrays to profile germline DNA methylation in BD patients and controls.

Materials and Methods

Samples: Post-mortem brain tissue of individuals with DSM-IV diagnosed SZ (n=35), BD (n=35) and matched controls (n=35) were provided by the Stanley Medical Research Institute (Array Collection). The samples consisted of frozen tissue sections, which were stored at −80° C. prior to DNA extraction. Additional information on the brain samples utilized in this study can be found at http://www.stanleyresearch.org/programs/brain_collection.asp. In addition, germline samples were available from male BD patients (n=20) and unaffected controls (n=20) from an ongoing study at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (Toronto, Canada). Extraction of all DNA was performed using a standard phenol/chloroform extraction method. The quality and quantity of DNA was assessed by spectrophotometry and agarose gel analysis, and subsequently stored at −20° C. until further use. Demographic data for the samples is summarized in Table 7.

Enrichment of unmethylated DNA and microarray hybridization: We used our developed technology for enrichment of the unmethylated DNA fraction and for epigenetic profiling using microarrays, described in detail elsewhere (15). In brief, the methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme HpaII (New England Biolabs) was used to digest 1 μg of genomic DNA. DNA adaptors (annealing products of two primers, U-CG1A and U-CG1B (see Table 8)) were ligated to the cleaved DNA fragments, followed by treatment with McrBC (New England Biolabs), which cleaves fragments containing two or more methylated cytosines, thereby further enriching the unmethylated fraction. Adaptor-PCR amplification of the ligated products, with the use of primers complementary to the adaptor sequence, consisted of 250 ng of ligated DNA, 2.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM aminoallyl-dNTPs (15 mM aminoallyl-2′-deoxyuridine 5′-triphosphate, 10 mM 2′-deoxythymidine 5′-triphosphate, and 25 mM each of 2′-deoxycytidine 5′-triphosphate, 2′-deoxyguanosine 5′-triphosphate, and 2′-deoxyadenosine 5′-triphosphate), 200 pmol primer U-CG1B, and 5U Taq polymerase (New England Biolabs) in 1×PCR reaction buffer (Sigma), to a final volume of 100 μl. PCR conditions are adjusted in such a way that fragments <1.5 kb (i.e. those that are digested, short and thus unmethylated) will amplify preferentially. Cycling consisted of an initial cycle at 72° C. for 5 min and 95° C. for 1 min, 25 cycles at 95° C. for 40 s and 68° C. for 2 min 30 s, and a final extension at 72° C. for 5 min. Given that the role of epigenetic effects in disease etiology may be sex-specific, and considerable differences are observed in the course and prognosis of PSY between males and females, we split our sample according to gender. For the brain samples, equal amounts of amplicons from CTRL male samples were mixed to form a pooled male CTRL, and from CTRL female samples to form a pooled female CTRL. Individual samples were then co-hybridized with the relevant common reference pool sample. For the germline samples, all samples were co-hybridized with a common reference pool made by combining amplicons from all CTRL samples. Samples were hybridized on 12,192 CpG island microarrays obtained from the University Health Network Microarray Facility in Toronto. For the brain samples, good quality DNA extraction, enrichment and microarray hybridization was successful for 28 CTRL samples, 35 SZ samples, and 32 BD samples. For the germline samples, good quality DNA extraction, enrichment and microarray hybridization was successful for 19 CTRL samples and 20 BD samples.

Microarray data pre-processing: Initial array image processing and quality control was performed using GenePix Pro 6.0 (Molecular Devices). The array signals were background-corrected using NormExp and normalized using weighted block-by-block LOWESS normalization. Spots with ambiguous genome locations, including spots with no sequence or annotation, repetitive spots, and translocation hotspots were removed, leaving a total of 7,834 spots.

Normality Testing: Several analyses assumed data to be drawn from a normal distribution, hence the need for normality testing. Log intensity ratios for each spot were subjected to the Lilliefors test for normality. The resultant p-values for all spots were adjusted for multiple testing using Benjamini and Hochberg's FDR method (50).

Microarray data analysis: Limma was used to analyze each array spot for differential methylation between affected and unaffected samples. Each spot was assigned a raw p-value based on a moderated t-statistic. To correct for multiple testing, the set of raw p-values were converted to false discovery rates (FDR) according to Benjamini and Hochberg (50).

Gene ontology (GO) analysis: A novel gene ontological investigation approach was designed to determine if any common functional trends are associated with the genes exhibiting differences between groups. For each group interrogated, only those loci exhibiting a significance value of less than p=0.01 from a spot-wise t-test were selected in order to include only those loci likely to have a true DNA methylation difference between groups. Gene IDs within 1 kb of these array loci were obtained from the microarray annotation data (available at www.microarrays.ca) and cross referenced with the April 2007 build of the Gene Ontology Database (www.geneontology.org) to obtain gene ontology (GO) categories associated with each microarray locus. All loci and corresponding mean fold change values were sorted into categories based on their GO classification, and the distribution of each GO category was compared with a paired t-test and the more conservative Wilcoxon Signed Rank test. In both cases, p-values were adjusted with FDR to correct for multiple testing. Data was then sorted by FDR p-value, revealing the most significantly different GO categories.

Network analysis of microarray data: In order to investigate if DNA methylation is coordinated across different loci, we utilized a novel network-based approach. For brain samples, this analysis was performed on twenty male SZ samples and an equal number of male CTRL samples—the other diagnostic groups were not included in this analysis because of their small sample sizes. We identified the top 700 methylation variable spots across the samples in each group. The union of these two sets, consisting of 1041 spots, was chosen for network reconstruction. To find connections between methylation at specific genomic regions (nodes), their methylation log intensities were modeled by a linear combination of the methylation log intensities at the remaining spots. After regression, the correlation between the minimized residuals was calculated, measuring the direct association between the two spots. Estimation of correlation and p-value was accomplished by a regularized covariance estimator that addresses the issue of small size and large variable (20<<1042) (51). As a control for the network analysis, in each of the 20 CTRL microarrays, we randomized the IDs of the 1041 spots and proceeded with the same estimator. A raw p-value of 10-7 was then chosen to cut-off the insignificant pair-wise correlations. A connection was drawn between a pair of spots whose correlation p-value survived the cut. The structure of each network was explored by calculating the transitivity (quantifying the connectivity between a spot's neighbors) and assortativity (quantifying the tendency of attachment between high connection spots). The modular structure of a network was detected by a partitioning algorithm (41) which maximizes the within-module connection densities at the expense of between-module connection densities. The analysis was repeated on the germline BD and CTRL samples.

Correlation with anti-psychotics used: Linear regression was performed on psychosis patients, with log intensity ratios for each spot as dependent variable and lifetime dosage of anti-psychotics applied as independent variable. Base-2 logarithm of the dosages were taken for the regression due to their wide spread. After the regression, p-values based on F-statistics were gathered for all spots and converted to FDR to control for multiple testing.

Bisulfite treatment of genomic DNA: Bisulfite treatment was performed using a standard protocol. Briefly, ˜500 ng genomic DNA was denatured in 0.3 M NaOH for 15 min at 37° C. After adding freshly prepared 3.5M sodium metabisulfite (Sigma) and 1 mM Hydroquinone (Sigma) solution, samples were subjected to a 5-hour incubation at 55° C. under exclusion of light. The samples were then purified using Qiagen DNA purification columns (Qiagen). Recovered samples were desulfonated in 0.3M NaOH for 15 minutes at 37° C. and neutralized. DNA was precipitated overnight in ethanol at −20° C. and resuspended in 50 μl buffer EB (Qiagen). Bisulfite treated DNA was stored at −80° C. until needed.

Bisulfite primer design and PCR amplification: Primers were designed using either MethPrimer, available online at http://www.urogene.org/methprimer/index1.html, or Pyrosequencing Assay Design Software v1.0.6 (Biotage, Sweden). For loci nominated from microarray analyses, primers were designed, where possible, to span a region containing potentially informative HpaII sites in the vicinity of the significant clone on the CpG island microarray. Where necessary, larger regions were covered using several overlapping amplicons. For selected candidate genes, the primary focus of analysis was promoter CpG islands. In some cases (e.g. COMT and BDNF), additional exonic regions in the vicinity of known genetic polymorphisms were also investigated. Where candidate genes had been previously investigated by other groups (RELN and COMT), we ensured that the same regions were adequately covered by our analyses. A full list of primer sequences and annealing temperatures for each PCR reaction can be found in Table 8. PCR amplifications were performed using a standard hot-start PCR protocol in 25 μl volume reactions containing 3 μl of sodium-bisulfate treated DNA, 1 μM primers, and a master mix containing hot-start Taq polymerase (Sigma). All PCR reactions were checked on a 1.0% agarose gel to ensure successful amplification and specificity before proceeding with Pyrosequencing or MS-SNuPe.

Site-specific DNA methylation analysis using Pyrosequencing and MS-SNuPe: For Pyrosequencing analysis, bisulfate-PCR products were processed according to the manufacturer's standard protocol (Biotage, Uppsala, Sweden). Briefly, 4 μl of streptavidin-sepharose beads (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J., USA) and 40 μl of binding buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EDTA, 2 M NaCl) were mixed with 40 μl of PCR product for 10 min at room temperature. The reaction mixture was placed onto a MultiScreen-HV, Clear Plate (Millipore, Billerica, Mass., USA). After applying the vacuum, the beads were treated with a denaturation solution (0.2 N NaOH) for 1 min and washed twice with washing buffer (10 mM Tris-acetate at pH 7.6). The beads were then suspended with 24 μl of annealing buffer (20 mM Tris-acetate, 2 mM Mg-acetate at pH 7.6) containing 8 pmol of sequencing primer. The template-sequencing primer mixture was transferred onto a PSQ 96 Plate (Biotage), heated to 90° C. for 2 min followed by 60° C. for 10 min and finally cooled to room temperature. Sequencing reactions were performed with a PSQ 96 SNP Reagent Kit (Biotage) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The percentage methylation at each CpG site were calculated from the raw data using Pyro-Q-CpG Software (Biotage). MS-SNuPe analysis was performed using ABI SNaPshot reagents (Applied Biosystems) using a method developed in our laboratory. Extension products were separated on an ABI3100 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems). Methylation data from Pyrosequencing and MS-SNuPe analysis was analyzed with SPSS v14 (Lead Technologies, Inc) using standard t-tests and ANOVA.

Genotyping of COMT and BDNF SNPs: Non-synonymous SNPs in COMT (rs4680-val108/158met) and BDNF (rs6265-val66met) could be genotyped using the Pyrosequencing assays designed to cover these regions. In addition, genotypes were double-checked using the ABI TaqMan Allelic discrimination method utilizing Assay-on-Demand reagents provided by the manufacturer (Applied Biosystems) and the ABI 7900HT Sequence Detection System. DNA methylation at surrounding CpG sites was compared between samples grouped by genotype using standard t-tests.

Results

Methylomic profiling of brain DNA: FIG. 12 illustrates raw p-values for microarray signal intensity versus fold-change observed for comparisons between brain DNA from PSY patients and unaffected controls, matched for sex. Significant (FDR<0.05) mean differences were found for spots associated with a number of genes. Many of these loci are consistent with our knowledge about the neurobiological and genetic systems involved in PSY (Table 6 and Table 9), including several glutamatergic and GABAergic genes, loci involved in neuronal development, and loci highlighted in genetic linkage studies. The full list of FDR-significant loci are presented in Table 10 and FIG. 17A.

Gene expression data for the samples used in this study is available from the Stanley Medical Research Institute Online Genomics Database (13). FIG. 17 b illustrates an example of the available expression data, highlighting downregulation of NR4A2, a gene found to be hypermethylated in female SZ samples. For NR4A2, 9 out of 24 studies show significantly reduced expression, with the overall analysis across all mRNA studies in the Stanley Array Collection being highly significant (p=<0.00001) (FIG. 17 b). FIG. 17 a summarizes the available expression data for all FDR-significant DNA methylation changes. 84% of the loci found to be hypermethylated in PSY samples, for which expression data is available (42 out of 50), are significantly down-regulated in at least one gene expression study with 28% (14 out of 50) showing significant down-regulation of expression across all mRNA studies performed on these samples.

Analysis of demographic data, brain-tissue parameters, and lifetime antipsychotic use: No FDR-significant correlations were found between any of the available demographic variables (PMI, brain weight, brain pH, lifetime alcohol use, and lifetime illicit drug use) and DNA methylation. Methylation of a CpG island located ˜30 kb upstream of the gene encoding mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase I (MEK1) was found to be significantly correlated with lifetime antipsychotic use in male SZ samples (r2=0.6, p=6.76E-06, FDR=0.04), with higher lifetime antipsychotic use associated with lower DNA methylation (FIG. 18).

Methylomic profiling of germline DNA: FIG. 13 illustrates raw p-values for array signal intensity versus fold-change observed in our comparison of germline DNA from BD patients and unaffected CTRLs. No FDR-significant differences were observed between the two groups. A comparison of the largest psychosis-associated DNA methylation differences in the germline analysis with those in the brain DNA analysis, taking loci with a raw p-value <0.001, found no overlap between datasets.

Site-specific CpG methylation analysis in selected genes: validation of microarray methodology: Previous studies have shown that the methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme based enrichment protocol utilized in this study can be used to reliably measure real DNA methylation differences (14,15). Following microarray analysis, we tested a number of loci to further verify the microarray approach. From the genes listed in Table 6, we quantitatively measured site-specific CpG methylation upstream of DTNBP 1 (n=30), GRIA2 (n=39), HCG9 (n=31), HELT (n=26), KCNJ6 (n=26), LHX5 (n=24), MARLIN-1 (n=28), NR4A2 (n=24), RPL39 (n=25), SLC17A7 (n=24), THEM59 (n=30), and WDR18 (n=29). Given that our enrichment strategy was based on differential cleavage of HpaII sites, we focused primarily on these and surrounding CpG positions located in or near genomic regions corresponding to specific microarray probes.

Our site-specific CpG analyses show good agreement with data obtained from microarray analysis. Two examples are shown in FIG. 14 for regions upstream of the genes WDR18 and RPL39. Microarray analysis (FIG. 14 a) predicted these regions to be hypomethylated in SZ male samples and hypermethylated in BD female samples, respectively. FIG. 14B shows Pyrosequencing data confirming WDR18 hypomethylation in male SZ samples compared to controls (n=29, average methylation 17% vs 25%, p=<0.001). This region contains a putative binding site for the brain-expressed transcription-factor c-myb, known to be blocked by CpG methylation 16 (FIG. 14 c). Pyrosequencing also verified RPL39 hypermethylation in BD female samples (n=25, 28% vs 22%, p=0.009), especially at a CpG located within putative binding sites for several brain-expressed transcription-factors that are known to be affected by DNA methylation, PAX-517 and NF-kB18 (FIG. 14 c).

FIG. 19 highlights DNA methylation changes observed in the genes selected from Table 6 for site-specific CpG methylation analysis. In addition to WDR18 and RPL39, we were able to confirm DNA methylation differences in MARLIN-1, postulated to be hypermethylated in affected female samples from microarray analysis. Average methylation of a HpaII site located in the genomic region spanning the microarray clone, and falling in a putative binding site for a Pbx1/Meis1 heterodimer, was 84% in unaffected controls, 93% in SZ females, and 91% in the combined PSY female group. Interestingly, while only 13% of unaffected control samples were fully methylated, 71% of SZ females, and 47% of the combined female PSY group were fully methylated.

No significant DNA methylation differences were detected in 7 of the 12 ‘positive’ microarray regions tested. However, even in these regions, changes were consistently in the direction predicted by our microarray analysis (FIG. 19). Five confirmed loci out of 12 tested (˜40%) is a relatively good rate of verification given that no DNA methylation differences were observed in any of the 12 ‘negative’ array regions tested (data not shown). This data suggest that that a substantial proportion of epigenetic differences detected in our microarray experiments are real, and the conclusions drawn from the full array dataset are likely to be based on genuine DNA methylation changes.

Gene ontology analysis of brain methylomic data: The top 60 GO categories for each diagnostic group can be seen in FIG. 15. Table 11 lists all significant GO categories with a p<0.01. GO categories detected by this analysis included genes involved in the epigenetic regulation of transcription and development. Of particular interest to the etiology of psychosis were the FDR-significant associations for “response to stress” in male BD samples, and “brain development” in both female BD samples and female SZ samples. In addition, consistent with the postulated link between mitochondrial function and psychosis19, several mitochondrial GO categories, involving loci on the nuclear genome, show significantly different distributions in the affected individuals compared to controls.

Modularity in DNA methylation microarray data: In the brain, the average number of connections between nodes (representing correlated methylation observed between different genomic loci) is higher in the SZ group compared to the CTRL group (2.7 vs 1.7) (FIG. 20). The large clustering coefficient in both sample groups (CTRL=0.17, SZ=0.22) suggests that both are modular. The lack of clustering in a series of simulated ‘random’ datasets, suggests that this modularity is likely to be a real biological phenomenon (FIG. 16 and FIG. 20). Assortativity is higher in SZ (knn=9) compared to CTRL (knn=6), reflecting the higher number of connections between nodes in SZ. Whilst the number of modules (CTRL=42, SZ=43) and median size of modules (CTRL=10, SZ=11) is approximately the same in both groups, the degree of modularity is higher in CTRL (0.0066) than in SZ (0.0051). A similar pattern is seen in the germline, with higher connectivity (3.9 vs 1.5) and assortativity (15 vs 7) in affected individuals compared to controls, a high degree of clustering in both groups (CTRL=0.14, BD=0.17), but higher modularity in unaffected individuals (0.0067 vs 0.0029).

DNA methylation analysis of psychosis candidate genes in brain DNA: We found little evidence of any psychosis-associated DNA methylation differences in any of the ten regions/genes tested (Table 12), including the promoter regions of COMT and RELN found to be differentially methylated in previous studies. Non-synonymous SNPs in COMT (rs4680-val108/158met) and BDNF (rs6265-val66met) both create/abolish exonic CpG sites. In COMT, surrounding CpG sites were highly methylated (>95%) in all samples tested, with no correlation between genotype and DNA methylation. In BDNF there is modest evidence for an association between genotype and DNA methylation. 74% of the samples tested were CC (val homozygotes), and 26% were CT or TT (met carriers). Val homozygotes had significantly higher DNA methylation across the exonic region profiled (average methylation=83% vs 78%, p=0.02).

Discussion

In this study we performed a microarray-based epigenomic scan using CpG-island microarrays and found psychosis-associated brain DNA methylation differences in numerous loci, including many genes that have been functionally-linked to disease etiology. Consistent with increasing evidence for altered glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission in the pathogenesis of PSY20, we identified epigenetic changes in loci associated with both these neurotransmitter pathways.

Glutamate is the most abundant fast excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system, with a critical role in synaptic plasticity. Several lines of evidence link the glutamate system to psychosis, in particular the observation that glutamate receptor agonists can cause psychotic symptoms in unaffected individuals. Probes associated with two glutamate receptor genes—one near WDR18, located ˜10 kb upstream of the NMDA receptor subunit gene NR3B (also known as GRIN3B), and another in the promoter of the AMPA receptor subunit gene GRIA2—were found to be hypomethylated in SZ and PSY males. Dysregulation of both NMDA and AMPA glutamate receptors is important in the etiology of PSY21, and GRIA2 expression is altered in the brains of SZ patients22.

Various types of glutamate transporter are present in the plasma membranes of glial cells and neurons. Our data suggests that two vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs), which pack glutamate into synaptic vesicles, are epigenetically altered in PSY. Given the link between DNA methylation and gene transcription, our data concur with data from gene expression studies and the observation that VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 are expressed in a complementary manner in cortical neurons23. VGLUT1, which were hypermethylated in SZ female samples, is down-regulated in the brains of SZ patients24. In addition, VGLUT2, which is up-regulated in SZ patients25, is hypomethylated in SZ females.

Several other glutamatergic genes showed evidence of epigenetically dysregulation in PSY. GLS2, which encodes a glutaminase enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of glutamine to glutamate, was hypermethylated in SZ male samples. Previous studies report that glutaminase expression is altered in the pathology of SZ26. The gene encoding Secretogranin II (SCG2), a secretory protein located in neuronal vesicles that is known to stimulate the release of glutamate, was hypomethylated in PSY females relative to unaffected controls. SCG2 expression is known to be modulated by both chronic PCP exposure, which mimics symptoms of PSY27 and lithium treatment28.

Unlike glutamate, which is a strong excitatory neurotransmitter, GABA acts as a potent inhibitory neurotransmitter. Hypofunctioning GABAergic interneurons appear to be important in the etiology of PSY29. Our data suggest that MARLIN-1, a RNA-binding protein widely expressed in the brain that regulates the production of functional GABA(B) receptors (30), is hypermethylated in SZ, BD, and PSY female samples. In addition, KCNJ6, a G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel that has been linked to the regulation of GABA neurotransmission (31) was found to be hypermethylated in SZ and PSY males. Increasing evidence suggests that both the glutamate and GABA systems are synergistically involved PSY20, supporting our observation of increased HELT promoter methylation in SZ and BD female samples. HELT is known to determine GABAergic over glutamatergic neuronal fate in the developing mesencephalon (32).

We observed evidence for epigenetic dysregulation near several genes involved in neuronal development in the brain. WNT1, an integral part of the Wnt signaling pathway that is critical for neurodevelopment, which is differentially expressed in SZ brains (33), was significantly hypermethylated in PSY females relative to controls. The transcriptionally inducible nuclear receptor NR4A2, down-regulated in both SZ and BD (see FIG. 17B and (34)), was found to be hypermethylated in SZ females. FOSB, encoding a protein controlling cell proliferation in the brain known to be expressed following chronic antipsychotic treatment (35) was hypomethylated in PSY females relative to controls. Finally, the LIM homeobox transcription factors LMX1B and LHX5, linked to normal learning and motor functions (36), also showed significant methylation changes in female psychosis samples, with LMX1B demonstrating putative hypomethylation and LHX5 putative hypermethylation.

Several other genes with links to PSY were found to be epigenetically altered. Given that phospholipid metabolism is disturbed in SZ37, it is noteworthy that the phospholipase gene PLA2G4B was hypermethylated in SZ male, PSY male, and PSY female samples. RAIL, hypermethylated in SZ female samples, is located in an unstable genomic region encoding a polymorphic polyglutamine tract associated with SZ and response to antipsychotic medication (38). AUTS2, hypermethylated in SZ male samples, spans a translocation breakpoint associated with mental retardation and autism (39). Finally, a probe located ˜90 kb upstream of one of our pre-nominated psychosis ‘candidate genes’, DTNBP 1, was hypermethylated in affected females.

No correlation was found between any demographic variables or post-mortem brain parameters and DNA methylation. Given the dynamic nature of the epigenome, however, and evidence linking drug exposure to DNA methylation, we also examined the epigenetic effect of antipsychotic treatment. Methylation of a CpG island located upstream of MEK1 is strongly correlated with antipsychotic intake, particularly in SZ males. The link between MEK1 and antipsychotic exposure is striking given the involvement of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways in mediating intraneuronal signaling, and the observation that clozapine selectively activates this pathway via an interaction with MEK (140).

Gene ontology (GO) analysis allows the investigation of functionally-linked biological pathways in microarray datasets. Several interesting GO categories were highlighted by our analysis, including several involved in various epigenetic processes, transcription, and development. In addition we find an association with genes involved in “brain development” in both female BD and SZ samples and “response to stress” in male BD samples, consistent with the popular diathesis-stress hypothesis of psychosis susceptibility. In addition, given the postulated link between mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and psychosis 19, it is interesting that a number of mitochondrial GO categories show significantly different distributions in affected individuals. Our methylome results are in close agreement with a parallel microarray-based transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics study, also performed on brain tissue obtained from the Stanley Foundation, in which genes/proteins associated with mitochondrial function and oxidative stress responses were the most altered group (19).

Traditional etiological studies of complex disease, both genetic and epigenetic, have tended to investigate discrete regions of DNA in isolation. It is plausible, however, that the epigenome, like many other biological systems, comprises a complex network of interacting processes and that DNA methylation in different genomic regions is inter-dependent. Understanding the system-level features of biological organization across the epigenome is an important aspect of elucidating the epigenetic changes associated with disease. In order to investigate if DNA methylation is coordinated across different loci, we utilized a novel network-based approach to test the modularity of our methylome data. In this way, a network comprises of distinct clusters of elements, termed ‘modules’, which are highly connected within themselves, but have fewer connections with the rest of the network (41). The study of interaction networks has proven fruitful in many areas of biological research, highlighting distinct modularity in metabolic networks (42), cellular networks (43), and protein interaction networks (44). Whilst such an approach has not been previously applied to the epigenome, recent evidence suggests the involvement of coordinated epigenetic silencing across large genomic regions in cancer (45).

The goal of our network analysis was twofold: first, to see whether there is modularity in the methylome; second, if such epigenetic modularity exists, to see whether there are any differences between affected and unaffected groups. For both brain and germline DNA, we found evidence for significant epigenetic modularity in both groups analyzed. No modules were observed in a series of simulated ‘random’ datasets, suggesting that the modular structure of the methylome is a real biological phenomenon and that the epigenome can be split into distinct groups of correlated loci, potentially corresponding to distinct functional pathways and/or physical regions. Whilst DNA methylation in both affected and unaffected groups is clearly modular, the number of interconnections between specific genomic regions is higher in the affected group compared to the CTRL group, resulting in more between-module interference, in both brain and germline DNA. Given that modules within such biological networks are likely to have specific functional tasks, separate to those of other modules (41), the lower degree of DNA methylation modularity observed in the PSY samples points to some degree of systemic epigenetic dysfunction associated with major psychosis.

The second approach utilized in this study focused on DNA methylation in the vicinity of genes with a priori evidence for an etiological role in PSY. These regions were profiled directly using bisulfite-modification and Pyrosequencing, with assays designed to span CpG-rich promoter regions, along with some exonic and intronic regions for several genes. Little evidence was found to suggest that DNA methylation in these genes is associated with either SZ or BD. Our analyses included the promoter regions of both COMT and RELN that have been previously shown to be epigenetically altered in psychosis in previous studies (8,9,46). Unlike these studies that report COMT hypomethylation and RELN hypermethylation in SZ samples, we found no evidence for DNA methylation changes in these genes associated with either SZ or BD. Our data are in agreement with a previous study on COMT reporting no association between promoter methylation and PSY11, and a recent study reporting very low levels of methylation across the RELN region, and no association with PSY10. It should be noted that some of the methods used in previous studies of these genes, for example methylation-specific PCR, can lead to biased assessment of methylated cytosines, and are not able to assess epigenetic changes in a truly quantitative manner as is possible with the Pyrosequencing methodology utilized in this study.

The observation of an association between genotype at a non-synonymous SNP (rs6265) in BDNF, and DNA methylation at surrounding CpG sites adds to the increasing evidence that DNA sequences can influence epigenetic profiles (e.g.14,47). Whilst DNA alleles and haplotypes can be subject to differential epigenetic modification, it appears that epigenetic status cannot be unequivocally deduced from DNA sequence data alone. The notion that epigenetic changes may be associated with DNA sequence variation is relevant to the inconsistent genetic association studies in complex diseases, and suggests that a comprehensive epigenetic analysis of candidate SNPs and haplotypes is warranted.

Our tandem use of two complementary approaches allowed us to test both a priori hypotheses and identify novel regions of the genome that may be epigenetically dysfunctional in PSY. The unbiased microarray approach was far more productive in identifying differentially methylated loci than the candidate gene approach; this has implications for the design of future epigenetic studies of complex disease. Of note is the observation that a high proportion of the microarray-nominated loci can be considered good functional/positional candidates. Given the relatively large number of differences observed between affected and unaffected individuals in our microarray screen, and the laborious nature of current bisulfate-based mapping approaches, it was unfeasible to further investigate each nominated gene at the level of specific CpG nucleotides in the course of this study. Our analyses were stringently controlled for multiple-testing using the FDR statistic, but as with all microarray-based experiments, it is possible that some of the genes uncovered are false-positives, and, more in-depth screening of specific gene regions will be needed to verify the specific DNA methylation changes involved.

To conclude, consistent with the epigenetic theory of PSY, a number of loci were found to be epigenetically altered in the brain of SZ and BD patients relative to unaffected controls.

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All citations are hereby incorporated by reference.

The present invention has been described with regard to one or more embodiments. However, it will be apparent to persons skilled in the art that a number of variations and modifications can be made without departing from the scope of the invention as defined in the claims.

TABLE 1 Statistical Analysis of microarray data from the sperm DNA-HHA, sperm DNA- HpaII and the brain DNA-HpaII data sets. The mean of the coefficient of variance (CV) in ratio (Cy5/Cy3) across the individuals (N) for each data set was calculated (+/− standard deviation, SD) The Count represents the number of unique loci remaining after data trimming (see Methods). Loci with CV above the 90th percentile are the top 10% methylation variable regions and loci below the 10th percentile are the least variable loci. The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis was performed to test for the effects of SNPs from our DNA methylation analysis. 300 loci were randomly selected from the 10th and 90th percentile loci and the clone sequence plus 1kb flanking regions were screened for the presence of SNPs and in particular SNPs that create or disrupt HpaII, Hin6I, and AciI restriction sites. The CpG island (CGI) analyses were performed by separating loci into either CpG islands (CGI) or non- CpG islands (not CGI). A Students t-test was performed to analyze the difference in mean CV. The number of loci within each group, within the 90th and 10th percentile loci, were counted and c2 analysis was performed. The CGI loci were further subdivided into loci within promoter regions of genes or not within promoters and the numbers of loci with the 90th and 10th percentiles were counted and c2 analysis was performed. Sperm DNA HHA data set Sperm DNA HpaII data set Brain DNA HpaII data set (N = 25) (N = 21) (N = 22) Descriptive Statistics Mean 6.72 (2.48) 9.23 (4.92) 10.89 (5.40) CV (SD) Count of 4969 4947 4952 loci 10^(th)%, <4.33, >9.53 <5.16, >13.71 <6.44, >16.33 90^(th)% SNP Analysis # with HHA # with no - # with HpaII # with no SNPs HHA SNPs SNPs HpaII SNPs I 90^(th) 78 72 32 118 Not Done Percentile 10^(th) 74 76 22 128 Percentile χ² 0.12 1.829 p-value 0.729 0.176 CpG Island Analysis CGI Not CGI CGI Not CGI CGI Not CGI Mean 6.69 (2.57) 6.79 (2.32) 9.6 (5.28) 8.97 (4.39) 11.06 (4.94) 11.05 (5.60) CV (SD) Count 2523 2446 2512 2435 2478 2401 t-test p- 0.14815 4.92E−06 0.93995 value CGI χ² test # CGI # Not CGI # CGI # Not CGI # CGI # Not CGI 90^(th) 235 217 296 198 256 238 Percentile 10^(th) 226 209 218 277 255 238 Percentile χ² 0.003 24.34 0.001 p-value 0.955 5.81E−07 0.974 Promoter χ² test # Promoter # Not CGI Promoter CGI 90^(th) Not Applicable 245 52 Not Applicable Percentile 10^(th) 152 67 Percentile χ² 11.44 p-value 4.87E−04

TABLE 2A Age related variance/Correlation in sperm-HpaII data set Distance from Gene UHNID Age corr Genome Location of Clone (bp) GeneID Nearest Gene UHNhscpg0007432 −0.918421653 chr14: 73296338-73296842 0 91748 C14orf43 UHNhscpg0004878 −0.644590225 chr18: 58533334-58533572 1366 23239 PHLPP UHNhscpg0001279 −0.635499301 chr2: 15682160-15683012 0 1653 DDX1 UHNhscpg0010337 −0.633961562 chr4: 24692990-24693129 0 55203 LGI2 UHNhscpg0000523 −0.628700319 chr14: 89918538-89919063 14066 801 CALM1 UHNhscpg0009687 −0.61929126 chr11: 71430395-71430772 0 4926 NUMA1 UHNhscpg0002060 −0.607457801 chr7: 117447932-117448126 10775 56311 ANKRD7 UHNhscpg0006282 −0.603136381 chr14: 50203675-50203889 0 60485 SAV1 UHNhscpg0008336 −0.60134971 chr3: 4211475-4211590 0 AY358092 UHNhscpg0002269 −0.594487623 chr16: 18719890-18721070 0 23204 ARL6IP UHNhscpg0006883 −0.590701745 chr7: 20603836-20604518 4091 221833 SP8 UHNhscpg0003324 −0.57876246 chr8: 80412773-80412879 272989 11075 STMN2 UHNhscpg0007072 −0.578612647 chr13: 20930559-20930802 0 253832 FLJ25952 UHNhscpg0002392 −0.577309667 chr12: 55758348-55759109 0 23306 AB006624 UHNhscpg0010814 −0.574206485 chr9: 111503780-111504547 0 548645 GNG10 UHNhscpg0002833 −0.568147866 chr11: 62202212-62203556 0 LOC51035 UHNhscpg0007366 −0.562953631 chr13: 20770028-20770950 73766 FLJ25952 UHNhscpg0010640 −0.55975393 chr16: 81828071-81828454 0 1012 CDH13 UHNhscpg0003417 −0.55808056 chr8: 80412825-80412879 272989 11075 STMN2 UHNhscpg0007351 −0.557144063 chr11: 133162749-133163293 52433 219938

UHNhscpg0011679 −0.553844494 chr19: 5999835-6000028 0 5990

UHNhscpg0011303 −0.551957348 chr1: 114639352-114639536 12748 51592 TRIM33 UHNhscpg0000547 −0.551565288 chr9: 86126053-86126501 0 81689 HBLD2 UHNhscpg0010993 −0.550180272 chr1: 46478949-46480024 0 10489 AF370430 UHNhscpg0000380 −0.545084964 chrX: 134996172-134996628 0 2273 FHL1 UHNhscpg0003556 −0.544679103 chrX: 62745590-62745765 0 23229 ARHGEF9 UHNhscpg0002314 −0.539967585 chr3: 157491673-157492091 0 7881 KCNAB1 UHNhscpg0003596 −0.531788057 chr4: 172320378-172320459 934465 51166 AADAT UHNhscpg0001705 −0.526787621 chr15: 99009623-99010314 2859 140460 ASB7 UHNhscpg0009822 −0.526562678 chr1: 21855364-21855679 370 AK026930 UHNhscpg0000063 −0.52421876 chr3: 72584222-72584350 5758 23429 RYBP UHNhscpg0001205 −0.521667613 chr17: 38793230-38793666 8954 AK128207 UHNhscpg0009465 −0.518509703 chr5: 92982058-92982196 0 83989 DKFZP564D172 UHNhscpg0009804 −0.517599705 chr6: 95040381-95040442 854395 2045 EPHA7 UHNhscpg0010111 −0.516980672 chr3: 45163070-45163300 152 64866 CDCP1 UHNhscpg0008321 −0.51607039 chr4: 32393339-32393439 1572342 5099 PCDH7 UHNhscpg0006596 −0.515801694 chr12: 6667579-6668374 0 171017 ZNF384 UHNhscpg0007045 −0.514160426 chr6: 39190376-39191144 0 55776 C6orf64 UHNhscpg0003064 −0.513774745 chr15: 50863986-50864266 0 3175 ONECUT1 UHNhscpg0008779 −0.512617631 chr12: 64004487-64004759 0 253827 LOC253827 UHNhscpg0002807 −0.510358672 chr9: 91266376-91266791 859 4783 NFIL3 UHNhscpg0007252 −0.510001953 chr13: 110249836-110250880 68680 283487 LOC283487 UHNhscpg0008979 −0.509333714 chr3: 97915795-97915891 100433 AY358738 UHNhscpg0002130 −0.508146229 chr20: 61676052-61676691 6181 85441 PRIC285 UHNhscpg0000750 −0.506824133 chr11: 111449826-111451103 0 55216 FLJ10726 UHNhscpg0004733 −0.506433015 chr11: 77963050-77963233 0 79731 FLJ23441 UHNhscpg0007997 −0.504269038 chr11: 19691578-19692280 0 89797 AJ488207 UHNhscpg0011253 −0.503229452 chr5: 5123770-5123955 111307 170690 ADAMTS16 UHNhscpg0001019 −0.502788473 chr17: 38793230-38793666 8954 AK128207 UHNhscpg0000830 −0.502263623 chr20: 11257478-11257784 588782 22903 BTBD3 UHNhscpg0008888 −0.501752931 chr14: 46575274-46575377 0 161357 MAMDC1 UHNhscpg0005027 −0.501245356 chr10: 127671190-127671371 0 92565 AY251163 UHNhscpg0008252 0.50313828 chrX: 24795508-24795821 1997 170302 ARX UHNhscpg0005849 0.505284858 chr9: 69169771-69170443 3351 9413 C9orf61 UHNhscpg0002396 0.505405308 chr9: 15499859-15499960 0 11168 PSIP1 UHNhscpg0000331 0.505543224 chr1: 114065861-114066820 0 54665 FLJ11220 UHNhscpg0004028 0.505850764 chr6: 109920727-109920873 0 FLJ25791 UHNhscpg0003238 0.508910182 chr5: 72642966-72643484 134358 2297 FOXD1 UHNhscpg0005599 0.512086932 chr11: 57161641-57162347 6789 219539 YPEL4 UHNhscpg0004696 0.515663002 chr2: 26012699-26013466 0 55252 ASXL2 UHNhscpg0008470 0.516009324 chr1: 225950806-225950903 0 55746 NUP133 UHNhscpg0008340 0.51741056 chr4: 84313172-84313686 0 51138 COPS4 UHNhscpg0003990 0.517872516 chr12: 43376666-43376983 0 4753 NELL2 UHNhscpg0008557 0.518846707 chr10: 239933-240068 0 10771 ZMYND11 UHNhscpg0000482 0.520984085 chr11: 85649369-85649478 0 8726

UHNhscpg0005884 0.520992457 chr3: 128381578-128381626 13045 285311 AK097460 UHNhscpg0008792 0.521754696 chr4: 145190267-145191203 5950 2996 GYPE UHNhscpg0009520 0.525317277 chr1: 91678271-91678520 0 8317 CDC7 UHNhscpg0004355 0.526505907 chr6: 27464330-27464706 0 441136 AK092633 UHNhscpg0001611 0.526967248 chr6: 30289787-30290357 683 7726 TRIM26 UHNhscpg0004783 0.529777441 chr22: 15638898-15638988 0 150165 MGC57211 UHNhscpg0000025 0.532588588 chr10: 75370203-75371061 22943 5328 PLAU UHNhscpg0005928 0.535021909 chr1: 212554059-212554157 0 7399 USH2A UHNhscpg0001828 0.537335195 chr17: 17507093-17507808 17703 10743 RAI1 UHNhscpg0005479 0.543975527 chr1: 215895774-215895935 122221 127018 LYPLAL1 UHNhscpg0002565 0.545509304 chr6: 116998748-116999090 1641 51389 RWDD1 UHNhscpg0008258 0.545922515 chr1: 114408830-114409330 316 148281 SYT6 UHNhscpg0010487 0.547254207 chr12: 92273678-92274142 234 11163 NUDT4 UHNhscpg0002717 0.55323384 chr12: 48302621-48302970 649 AK123353 UHNhscpg0002673 0.553941933 chr15: 81825124-81825456 80654 646 BNC1 UHNhscpg0010939 0.554017064 chr10: 8108807-8109019 23399 FLJ45983 UHNhscpg0001474 0.557227088 chr8: 53488737-53489332 3881 9705 ST18 UHNhscpg0008206 0.559375672 chr14: 89155480-89155723 41909 29018 AF118074 UHNhscpg0004409 0.560612707 chr12: 63850471-63850714 0 23592 MAN1 UHNhscpg0005280 0.566882321 chr8: 114808371-114808497 289953 114788 CSMD3 UHNhscpg0002623 0.566952142 chr12: 14237814-14238207 171686 55729

UHNhscpg0003738 0.567376726 chr2: 88155376-88155675 10310 51315 LOC51315 UHNhscpg0008444 0.570746223 chr10: 122728932-122729159 69907 55717 WDR11 UHNhscpg0007259 0.575414924 chr1: 208139197-208139388 390 7779 SLC30A1 UHNhscpg0002607 0.582792699 chr2: 26481086-26481443 0 165082 GPR113 UHNhscpg0008656 0.58347414 chr1: 115293188-115293360 4205 7252 TSHB UHNhscpg0002406 0.584415421 chr18: 48120746-48121468 0 1630 DCC UHNhscpg0009002 0.5849705 chr16: 78361983-78362481 169871 4094 MAF UHNhscpg0007649 0.586330872 chr14: 80296231-80296366 0 145508 C14orf145 UHNhscpg0004597 0.587453741 chr22: 15638898-15638988 0 MGC57211 UHNhscpg0003289 0.613126037 chr14: 20640986-20641802 4239 554207 BC031469 UHNhscpg0002376 0.616193621 chr18: 33116047-33117280 0 56853 BRUNOL4 UHNhscpg0002145 0.617261027 chr1: 116672902-116673528 13466 476 ATP1A1 UHNhscpg0000928 0.628741946 chr18: 32114987-32115360 12305 55034 MOCOS UHNhscpg0008601 0.636604373 chr19: 40897102-40898011 0 27033

UHNhscpg0002312 0.640025401 chr12: 52959901-52960341 457 3178 HNRPA1 UHNhscpg0004507 0.640711129 chr2: 80187757-80187860 0 1496 CTNNA2 UHNhscpg0002864 0.644197159 chr20: 20293918-20294056 2708 3642

UHNhscpg0008280 0.693689486 chr3: 111231569-111231663 692505 55211

UHNhscpg0003180 0.698353684 chr2: 45078887-45079081 1606 6496 SIX3 Italicized Genes Involved in Cancer or other disease related Underlined Genes Brain/neuronal related genes Dashed Underlined Genes

Age correlation Negative score = inc meth wrt age Positive score = dec meth wrt age

TABLE 2B Age Related Correlation in Sperm-HHA data set Nearest Gene Distance Nearest Nearest UHNID Age corr Genome Location (bp) GeneID Gene UHNhscpg0006311 −0.571461 chr16: 73575728-73575882 0 79726 BC004519 UHNhscpg0000757 −0.5414097 chr16: 3084575-3084850 1713 84891 ZNF206 UHNhscpg0002369 −0.5080423 chr12: 102467385-102467934 15583 55576 STAB2 UHNhscpg0001087 −0.5049054 chr2: 222992625-222992945 0 0 FLJ32447 UHNhscpg0000495 −0.4991295 chr2: 38215365-38216278 448 1545 CYP1B1 UHNhscpg0000562 −0.4981613 chr10: 21822844-21823534 18875 387640 FLJ45187 UHNhscpg0009206 −0.4953882 chr2: 120996167-120996370 56240 84931 FLJ14816 UHNhscpg0005717 −0.4945551 chr21: 46567171-46567396 1086 5116 PCNT2 UHNhscpg0007805 −0.49356 chr2: 223623949-223624362 0 2181 ACSL3 UHNhscpg0006512 −0.4900278 chr12: 21985242-21985363 0 10060 BC033804 UHNhscpg0001346 −0.4890173 chr12: 94687435-94687958 0 0 METAP2 UHNhscpg0000367 −0.4675992 chr9: 123770922-123771907 0 57706 AK024782 UHNhscpg0009946 −0.4518449 chr17: 70661243-70661746 0 51155 HN1 UHNhscpg0007913 −0.449313 chr3: 44011141-44011398 246983 375337 AK093476 UHNhscpg0002168 −0.437548 chr7: 13802034-13802474 0 2115 ETV1 UHNhscpg0000973 −0.4372439 chr18: 54013705-54014057 0 23327 NEDD4L UHNhscpg0001825 −0.432339 chr12: 94687426-94687979 0 0 METAP2 UHNhscpg0008872 −0.428427 chr3: 25681850-25682051 1058 7155 TOP2B UHNhscpg0004998 −0.425298 chr18: 24676574-24676664 665482 1000 CDH2 UHNhscpg0003543 −0.4174782 chr13: 93951550-93951661 21626 1638 DCT UHNhscpg0000752 −0.4161375 chr19: 52308085-52308632 0 23211 C19orf7 UHNhscpg0000402 −0.4145143 chr10: 70330981-70331591 0 0 AK056044 UHNhscpg0000851 −0.4097783 chr15: 43466690-43467020 8677 2628 GATM UHNhscpg0008103 −0.4090966 chr5: 78724780-78724896 0 9456 HOMER1 UHNhscpg0000874 −0.4090138 chr13: 45524409-45524808 0 23091 BC019000 UHNhscpg0003075 −0.4080136 chr12: 22379747-22379948 832 0 SIAT8A UHNhscpg0007389 −0.405673 chr1: 192571739-192571804 354765 343450 SLICK UHNhscpg0001303 −0.405598 chr12: 50749103-50749772 254 60673 FLJ11773 UHNhscpg0008902 −0.4048977 chr14: 46575274-46575748 0 161357 MAMDC1 UHNhscpg0001410 −0.4042417 chr15: 43466690-43467020 8677 2628 GATM UHNhscpg0001498 −0.4035585 chr19: 14052743-14053182 5870 113230 BC011002 UHNhscpg0001795 −0.4022476 chr22: 45478515-45478970 97 25771 C22orf4 UHNhscpg0000092 −0.4017695 chr1: 243700095-243700378 45036 317705 VN1R5 UHNhscpg0000407 −0.4016029 chr3: 159310225-159310601 0 51319 MGC12197 UHNhscpg0001152 −0.401599 chr4: 85773951-85774343 0 4825 NKX6-1 UHNhscpg0011244 0.400513 chr1: 233050707-233050741 0 55127 AK098212 UHNhscpg0008036 0.4027472 chr22: 22430339-22430668 0 150248 FLJ36561 UHNhscpg0009859 0.4084672 chr20: 38753133-38753612 1843 9935 MAFB UHNhscpg0011733 0.4095515 chr5: 78381324-78381406 0 29958 DMGDH UHNhscpg0010258 0.4143755 chr1: 10393997-10394274 0 5226 PGD UHNhscpg0005083 0.4183838 chr6: 122167296-122167347 354726 2697 GJA1 UHNhscpg0008843 0.422049 chr3: 54282033-54282522 0 55799 AF516696 UHNhscpg0003506 0.4240404 chr2: 36496443-36496693 0 0 CRIM1 UHNhscpg0005633 0.4240989 chr18: 30341908-30341962 85357 1837 DTNA UHNhscpg0005683 0.4247309 chr4: 84391329-84391815 0 51316 PLAC8 UHNhscpg0010991 0.4284163 chr12: 78167517-78167778 0 6857 SYT1 UHNhscpg0010414 0.428641 chr14: 69723455-69723658 0 6547 SLC8A3 UHNhscpg0011471 0.4289618 chr19: 63431698-63431877 765 27300 ZNF544 UHNhscpg0011163 0.4336394 chr19: 58188067-58188175 0 90338 ZNF160 UHNhscpg0003691 0.4439328 chr8: 116422851-116423033 66866 7227 TRPS1 UHNhscpg0011833 0.4440889 chr13: 99427912-99428530 3789 0 ZIC2 UHNhscpg0005658 0.4461968 chr7: 4636276-4636727 0 55698 FLJ10324 UHNhscpg0003824 0.4462915 chr2: 107673648-107673883 238538 285190 BX537861 UHNhscpg0006149 0.4473537 chr1: 193309526-193310390 370 343450 SLICK UHNhscpg0005850 0.4475083 chr11: 959952-960191 0 161 AP2A2 UHNhscpg0009680 0.4498291 chr14: 38935426-38935732 978 254170 FBXO33 UHNhscpg0009704 0.4509138 chr19: 45765931-45766515 0 57731 SPTBN4 UHNhscpg0007755 0.4520231 chr15: 76517964-76518338 0 0 IREB2 UHNhscpg0008364 0.4540589 chr3: 172679809-172679986 18989 23043 AB011123 UHNhscpg0008495 0.4544119 chr21: 36354670-36354909 10 54093 C21orf18 UHNhscpg0006360 0.4566517 chr10: 102972869-102973961 2762 10660

UHNhscpg0005626 0.4603208 chr1: 43493737-43494422 0 991 CDC20 UHNhscpg0011755 0.4645775 chr11: 18684679-18684913 0 0 FLJ37794 UHNhscpg0009584 0.4827054 chr14: 38935426-38935732 978 254170 FBXO33 UHNhscpg0010541 0.4897825 chr20: 1875274-1875325 6734 140885 PTPNS1 UHNhscpg0007861 0.4988212 chr19: 8563202-8563420 0 81794 ADAMTS10 UHNhscpg0010637 0.5227931 chr20: 1875274-1875325 6734 140885 PTPNS1 UHNhscpg0005162 0.5267622 chr4: 123228934-123229348 16718 0 TRPC3 UHNhscpg0011884 0.5376706 chr8: 39748508-39748595 0 2515 ADAM2 UHNhscpg0005387 0.5521166 chr19: 19634927-19635609 0 57130 ATP13A Italicized Genes Involved in Cancer or other disease related Underlined Genes Brain/neuronal related genes Dashed Underlined Genes

Age correlation Negative score = inc meth wrt age Positive score = dec meth wrt age

TABLE 3 List of clones selected for bisulfite modification MS-SNuPE analysis # Total # # variable Within Chr Enzyme CpGs Methylated UHNID Gene Description Location CpGs tested CpGs UHNhscpg0004931 OLR1 oxidised low density 12p13.2 12  11  9 lipoprotein receptor 1 UHNhscpg0004063 CDH13 cadherin 13 preproprotein 16q23.3 8 8 8 UHNhscpg0002847 SCAM1 sorbin and SH3 domain 8p21.3 13  6 5 containing 3 UHNhscpg0003990 NELL2 NEL-like 2 (chicken) 12q12 2 2 2 UHNhscpg0003907 NEIL2 (Nei like 2) (E. coli). 8p23.1 7 6 4 UHNhscpg0001947 MKL2 Megakaryoblastic 16p13.12 10  5 2 leukemia 2. UHNhscpg0000823 2-PDE 2′-phosphodiesterase 3p14.3 20  6 1 UHNhscpg0004641 RHOQ Ras-related GTP-binding 2p21 12  6 1 protein TC10 UHNhscpg0002006 DIRAS3 ras homolog gene family, 1p31.2 20  5 0 member I UHNhscpg0005090 AHR RWD domain containing 3 1p21.3 3 3 2 UHNhscpg0009548 DSCAM Down syndrome cell 21q22.2 4 3 3 adhesion molecule UHNhscpg0004745 FBN1 fibrillin 1 (Marfan 15q21.1 2 2 2 syndrome)

TABLE 4 33 Significant Loci as described in Example 2. Within Upstream Downstream FDR p-value ID UHNID ChromoSome Gene Gene Gene 0.039503028 3_L_4 UHNhscpg0001078 1 HLX1 AK128488 0.039503028 1_M_12 UHNhscpg0000174 16 FLJ20898 AL080069 CRAMP1L 0.088455631 4_L_4 UHNhscpg0001452 0.088455631 22_L_1 UHNhscpg0008040 1 C1orf27 AF076463 0.093059438 3_F_21 UHNhscpg0000961 5 CXXC5 UBE2D2 CXXC5 0.093059438 23_D_23 UHNhscpg0008387 5 TRIM7 TRIM41 0.093059438 13_H_4 UHNhscpg0004779 15 HAPLN3 AGC1 MFGE8 0.132947027 26_A_3 UHNhscpg0009325 4 NKX6-1 MGC11324 CDS1 0.132947027 2_L_11 UHNhscpg0000625 10 AK093639 SFMBT2 0.154341647 24_D_21 UHNhscpg0008770 6 HIST1H3G HIST1H2BH HIST1H2BI 0.167756484 9_M_5 UHNhscpg0003036 2 LOC84661 CGI-27 SPG4 0.191790532 8_C_1 UHNhscpg0002608 9 ATP6V1G1 DFNB31 C9orf91 0.191790532 7_P_18 UHNhscpg0002592 2 ERBB4 CPS1 ZNFN1A2 0.191790532 29_M_8 UHNhscpg0010647 3 ALCAM LOC131368 ALCAM 0.191790532 15_P_20 UHNhscpg0005572 16 KIAA1007 FLJ10815 0.206542373 2_I_20 UHNhscpg0000522 12 IPO8 ARG99 C1QDC1 0.206542373 14_M_15 UHNhscpg0004916 12 SART3 HYPE ISCU 0.207137404 1_K_12 UHNhscpg0000162 17 HES7 PER1 0.222755617 7_P_17 UHNhscpg0002496 2 ERBB4 CPS1 ZNFN1A2 0.225913734 8_E_5 UHNhscpg0002622 0.225913734 6_O_19 UHNhscpg0001942 19 POLD1 NR1H2 SPIB 0.225913734 6_H_1 UHNhscpg0002067 11 FN5 FLJ25393 AB051518 0.225913734 6_E_18 UHNhscpg0001974 19 RPL28 MDAC1 UBE2S 0.225913734 5_F_12 UHNhscpg0001784 1 HLX1 AK128488 0.225913734 20_H_18 UHNhscpg0007392 0.225913734 19_A_9 UHNhscpg0006714 13 COL4A2 COL4A1 AK130129 0.230896667 12_J_22 UHNhscpg0004425 17 BCAS3 TBX2 0.235298071 24_L_22 UHNhscpg0008914 14 MAMDC1 RPL10L RPS29 0.249926623 18_E_18 UHNhscpg0006459 7 MEST TSGA14 COPG2 0.253542193 18_E_9 UHNhscpg0006360 10 TLX1 LBX1 0.264154456 7_O_23 UHNhscpg0002309 20 C20orf185 BPIL3 C20orf186 0.293661105 24_I_15 UHNhscpg0008611 2 AK123152 REPRIMO AK090913 0.293661105 1_C_16 UHNhscpg0000116 21 ERG ERG AY204748

TABLE 5 Additional Loci information for bipolar subjects Downstream Raw p-value id UHNID Chr Within Gene Upstream Gene Gene 0.000032 3_L_4 UHNhscpg0001078 1 HLX1 AK128488 0.000072 20_A_17 UHNhscpg0007087 19 SLC1A5 BC014403 AP2S1 0.000096 2_L_11 UHNhscpg0000625 10 AK093639 SFMBT2 0.000221 7_P_17 UHNhscpg0002496 2 ERBB4 CPS1 ZNFN1A2 0.000225 26_A_3 UHNhscpg0009325 4 NKX6-1 MGC11324 CDS1 0.000225 15_P_20 UHNhscpg0005572 16 KIAA1007 FLJ10815 0.000226 5_F_12 UHNhscpg0001784 1 HLX1 AK128488 0.000325 12_J_22 UHNhscpg0004425 17 BCAS3 TBX2 0.000372 8_H_6 UHNhscpg0002907 2 FLJ38377 GPR148 ARHGEF4 0.00043 6_M_20 UHNhscpg0002021 1 AY499148 LOC127540 MGC15882 0.000443 7_P_18 UHNhscpg0002592 2 ERBB4 CPS1 ZNFN1A2 0.000499 4_L_4 UHNhscpg0001452 0.000612 3_F_21 UHNhscpg0000961 5 CXXC5 UBE2D2 CXXC5 0.000674 31_P_21 UHNhscpg0011530 16 BC064026 TNFRSF12A AK128093 0.000694 32_K_4 UHNhscpg0011785 16 FOXL1 FBXO31 0.00072 8_O_17 UHNhscpg0002684 2 ERBB4 CPS1 ZNFN1A2 0.000732 7_P_11 UHNhscpg0002493 5 PCDHGA1 PCDHGA5 PCDHGA6 0.000791 10_A_2 UHNhscpg0003428 15 TORC3 IQGAP1 AK130544 0.000812 6_F_11 UHNhscpg0002061 12 IPO8 ARG99 C1QDC1 0.000868 6_I_20 UHNhscpg0001998 21 WRB HMGN1 MGC33295 0.000943 5_D_21 UHNhscpg0001690 15 FAH BC051335 0.00095 4_H_20 UHNhscpg0001436 10 AK093639 SFMBT2 0.001017 20_B_2 UHNhscpg0007350 4 LPHN3 EPHA5 0.00111 10_E_19 UHNhscpg0003366 13 ESD HTR2A 0.001155 8_E_5 UHNhscpg0002622 0.001173 24_I_15 UHNhscpg0008611 2 AK123152 REPRIMO AK090913 0.001269 20_H_18 UHNhscpg0007392 0.001293 19_A_9 UHNhscpg0006714 13 COL4A2 COL4A1 AK130129 0.001295 26_F_24 UHNhscpg0009647 5 AK026075 DHX29 0.001303 1_K_12 UHNhscpg0000162 17 HES7 PER1 0.00137 14_M_15 UHNhscpg0004916 12 SART3 HYPE ISCU 0.001383 4_P_10 UHNhscpg0001478 1 APG4C FOXD3 0.001388 16_F_8 UHNhscpg0005885 1 EPS15 C1orf34 OSBPL9 0.001399 1_A_21 UHNhscpg0000011 16 CNTNAP4 HSRG1 0.001563 24_P_8 UHNhscpg0008931 5 CDH12 PMCHL1 PRDM9 0.001614 28_C_1 UHNhscpg0010104 17 FLJ20920 CHAD FLJ11164 0.001635 7_O_12 UHNhscpg0002399 5 PCDHGA1 PCDHGA5 PCDHGA6 0.001886 1_M_12 UHNhscpg0000174 16 FLJ20898 AL080069 CRAMP1L 0.002079 2_D_21 UHNhscpg0000583 18 MADH4 ELAC1 RKHD2 0.002088 22_N_21 UHNhscpg0008062 10 LYZL2 LOC220929 0.002212 3_G_23 UHNhscpg0000789 17 FLJ45455 AY550194 LOC284033 0.002215 28_I_23 UHNhscpg0010151 1 DEPDC1 DEPDC1 KIAA1365 0.002334 10_G_17 UHNhscpg0003376 10 C10orf39 DPYSL4 0.002375 9_A_13 UHNhscpg0002968 13 BC020814 SLC25A15 ELF1 0.002455 19_D_21 UHNhscpg0006916 4 PCDH7 CENTD1 0.002518 25_G_17 UHNhscpg0008984 8 PLAG1 MOS AK098285 0.002689 22_C_2 UHNhscpg0007896 21 DSCR3 DYRK1A 0.00284 27_E_7 UHNhscpg0009735 6 MGC33835 CLPS SRPK1 0.00305 18_E_18 UHNhscpg0006459 7 MEST TSGA14 COPG2 0.003088 22_D_19 UHNhscpg0008001 3 BC067737 SLC9A9 0.003128 6_D_15 UHNhscpg0002053 20 C20orf85 AK128005 C20orf86 0.003195 7_J_11 UHNhscpg0002458 12 OAS3 OAS1 OAS2 0.003263 3_E_23 UHNhscpg0000778 2 BRE FOSL2 0.00343 29_M_8 UHNhscpg0010647 3 ALCAM LOC131368 ALCAM 0.00349 12_I_15 UHNhscpg0004138 6 HIST1H3A HIST1H1A HIST1H4D 0.003595 9_L_14 UHNhscpg0003305 7 EN2 INSIG1 AK124544 0.003595 13_H_5 UHNhscpg0004689 0.00362 14_N_10 UHNhscpg0005183 9 AL834325 MAPKAP1 0.003749 30_M_23 UHNhscpg0010943 14 STXBP6 NOVA1 0.003796 8_H_5 UHNhscpg0002818 5 AK057601 LOC375449 AB002301 0.003843 18_F_24 UHNhscpg0006654 4 GRID2 AY499148 ATOH1 0.003881 2_C_15 UHNhscpg0000397 5 FBXW1B FGF18 STK10 0.004028 24_N_21 UHNhscpg0008830 9 C9orf40 AK126029 C9orf41 0.004105 24_N_10 UHNhscpg0008920 5 CDH12 PMCHL1 PRDM9 0.004177 8_E_24 UHNhscpg0002723 9 SLC28A3 AF174394 0.004214 6_H_9 UHNhscpg0002071 22 CERK C22orf4 0.004225 15_N_3 UHNhscpg0005463 11 DLG2 HT007 0.004307 7_P_20 UHNhscpg0002593 3 MLF1 MGC12197 MLF1 0.004359 26_J_7 UHNhscpg0009567 X DMD DMD S71486 0.004511 31_F_17 UHNhscpg0011468 1 CAPZA1 MOV10 0.004567 25_D_1 UHNhscpg0009144 3 AK092352 CIDE-3 0.004795 11_O_21 UHNhscpg0003793 1 FLJ10948 BC067108 0.004893 1_O_1 UHNhscpg0000085 17 AY302137 AK024458 M-RIP 0.004904 25_C_1 UHNhscpg0008952 6 RING1 VPS52 0.004988 28_M_12 UHNhscpg0010265 12 BC059370 AF289571 RBMS2 0.005021 6_N_3 UHNhscpg0002104 2 SPR EMX1 0.005122 29_J_3 UHNhscpg0010717 X PRDX4 ACATE2 0.005179 6_O_4 UHNhscpg0002024 3 ZIC1 U87591 0.0052 19_D_2 UHNhscpg0006998 4 NDST3 PRSS12 0.00521 28_G_17 UHNhscpg0010136 2 FIGN GRB14 0.005227 20_F_5 UHNhscpg0007286 4 NPY1R NPYSR 0.005339 26_M_17 UHNhscpg0009404 9 C9orf62 KIAA0649 0.005553 17_H_2 UHNhscpg0006273 15 CA12 CA12 USP3 0.005682 7_D_1 UHNhscpg0002418 9 ATP6V1G1 DFNB31 C9orf91 0.005993 32_O_7 UHNhscpg0011715 0.006207 27_L_20 UHNhscpg0010065 3 MGC26717 EPHA3 0.006341 6_A_11 UHNhscpg0001854 9 PTPN3 PTPN3 PTPN3 0.006354 25_N_1 UHNhscpg0009204 3 KIAA0089 OSBPL10 CKLFSF8 0.006431 6_K_4 UHNhscpg0002001 1 LAMC2 LAMC1 NMNAT2 0.006539 22_C_19 UHNhscpg0007809 3 PTPRG HT021 0.006701 26_H_5 UHNhscpg0009554 20 AB033098 AF451990 0.006787 4_L_17 UHNhscpg0001365 0.006862 19_C_1 UHNhscpg0006721 0.006867 7_O_18 UHNhscpg0002402 2 ERBB4 CPS1 ZNFN1A2 0.006964 7_P_21 UHNhscpg0002498 7 CPVL CPVL CHN2 0.007128 8_O_19 UHNhscpg0002685 3 DBR1 DBR1 HSPC056 0.007153 4_K_3 UHNhscpg0001173 0.007157 13_P_21 UHNhscpg0004742 0.007385 3_H_22 UHNhscpg0001063 15 BC066364 PTPN9 0.007402 13_B_7 UHNhscpg0004654 10 BC027847 DRD1IP 0.007404 17_G_8 UHNhscpg0006088 19 ZNF582 ZNF542 ZNF583 0.007531 3_K_16 UHNhscpg0000899 5 AY358358 BC062459 OR2V2 0.007711 7_F_5 UHNhscpg0002432 4 DKFZP564O0823 BTC AK027257 0.007798 5_G_10 UHNhscpg0001616 6 AK021951 STXBP5 0.008117 5_F_17 UHNhscpg0001700 3 MRPL47 GNB4 MRPL47 0.008146 24_N_16 UHNhscpg0008923 6 MRPS18A C6orf206 VEGF 0.008217 15_O_22 UHNhscpg0005389 3 AF351617 AY070437 SCHIP1 0.0083 13_M_5 UHNhscpg0004535 12 CAPZA3 PEPP2 0.0084 12_D_13 UHNhscpg0004289 10 HIF1AN PAX2 0.008507 28_B_18 UHNhscpg0010388 12 U47671 TBX3 0.008596 18_N_14 UHNhscpg0006693 11 SCGB1A1 MGC5395 0.008615 14_H_17 UHNhscpg0005068 1 TMEM9 CACNA1S DKFZp434B1231 0.008801 10_J_7 UHNhscpg0003564 3 CNTN6 CNTN4 0.00891 23_F_4 UHNhscpg0008485 7 AP4M1 MCM7 AP4M1 0.009035 12_D_10 UHNhscpg0004383 0.009073 13_K_10 UHNhscpg0004620 6 NCOA7 HEY2 NCOA7 0.009175 17_M_19 UHNhscpg0006035 6 PAK1IP1 C6orf52 TMEM14C 0.009293 31_F_18 UHNhscpg0011564 1 CAPZA1 MOV10 0.009331 14_D_1 UHNhscpg0005042 11 MYEOV CCND1 0.009334 11_P_18 UHNhscpg0004079 12 U80760 ING4 ZNF384 0.009352 17_B_10 UHNhscpg0006241 1 JARID1B RABIF 0.009396 7_B_4 UHNhscpg0002501 2 TANK PSMD14 0.009423 18_B_22 UHNhscpg0006629 12 AK126039 SFRS8 0.009476 6_N_4 UHNhscpg0002193 2 SPR EMX1 0.009595 4_O_2 UHNhscpg0001287 7 PODXL PLXNA4 0.009606 2_L_12 UHNhscpg0000715 6 TAF11 C6orf107 ANKS1 0.009608 31_B_22 UHNhscpg0011542 17 CPD UNQ9372 GOSR1 0.009641 9_H_4 UHNhscpg0003279 19 AXL HNRPUL1 0.009678 16_A_23 UHNhscpg0005586 X IRS4 GUCY2F 0.009857 14_I_4 UHNhscpg0004977 0.009862 24_J_18 UHNhscpg0008900 14 MAMDC1 RPL10L RPS29 0.009954 20_M_23 UHNhscpg0007158 9 GLDC UHRF2 JMJD2C 0.010057 31_B_1 UHNhscpg0011436 2 GBX2 ASB18 0.010146 24_P_9 UHNhscpg0008836 15 SPG6 SPG6 FLJ35785 0.010315 28_D_18 UHNhscpg0010400 12 FLJ22789 AK001156 DKFZp762A217 0.010339 5_H_12 UHNhscpg0001796 3 ZNF35 ZNF197 ZNF35 0.01044 11_N_7 UHNhscpg0003966 0.010497 1_F_20 UHNhscpg0000319 0.01063 10_H_20 UHNhscpg0003649 10 HSPA14 SUV39H2 0.010639 1_J_23 UHNhscpg0000250 6 PREP PRDM1 0.010731 26_M_14 UHNhscpg0009498 10 IDE KIF11 0.010751 19_E_9 UHNhscpg0006737 12 U47671 TBX3 0.010834 21_K_8 UHNhscpg0007580 1 FUSIP1 PNRC2 FLJ35961 0.010854 30_B_18 UHNhscpg0011156 0.010927 12_I_24 UHNhscpg0004234 7 U88666 AK126439 MLL5 0.011022 8_F_20 UHNhscpg0002903 18 RBBP8 CTAGE-1 RBBP8 0.011035 28_L_2 UHNhscpg0010440 11 AK074166 OSBP 0.01107 21_B_5 UHNhscpg0007613 15 IREB2 CRABP1 IREB2 0.011115 6_H_5 UHNhscpg0002069 20 TFAP2C BMP7 0.011212 6_E_24 UHNhscpg0001977 12 GCN1L1 AF274958 0.011221 13_E_5 UHNhscpg0004488 Y NLGN4Y XKRY 0.011271 23_D_23 UHNhscpg0008387 5 TRIM7 TRIM41 0.011279 11_A_5 UHNhscpg0003701 0.011492 12_P_23 UHNhscpg0004366 0.011718 25_E_7 UHNhscpg0008967 14 NKX2-8 AY064415 0.011929 19_I_5 UHNhscpg0006759 0.011992 27_A_2 UHNhscpg0009804 6 EPHA7 MANEA 0.012157 26_O_22 UHNhscpg0009514 1 PF6 BX537778 0.012563 29_P_11 UHNhscpg0010757 1 IER5 MR1 AF387616 0.012753 20_E_1 UHNhscpg0007102 0.012776 15_J_20 UHNhscpg0005537 7 CENTG3 ASB10 0.012844 4_P_22 UHNhscpg0001484 4 HIP2 HIP2 KIAA0648 0.01287 17_C_5 UHNhscpg0005968 22 FBXO7 BPIL2 SYN3 0.013007 12_C_14 UHNhscpg0004193 11 RAB6A MRPL48 0.013008 10_B_19 UHNhscpg0003522 20 ANKRD5 SNAP25 0.013028 20_E_21 UHNhscpg0007111 1 AY499148 CSMD2 MGC15882 0.013032 30_K_7 UHNhscpg0010923 0.013033 5_H_18 UHNhscpg0001799 20 PXMP4 E2F1 ZNF341 0.013085 21_K_4 UHNhscpg0007578 16 CNTNAP4 HSRG1 0.013102 25_P_4 UHNhscpg0009313 1 SSB1 MGC4399 0.013264 25_P_5 UHNhscpg0009218 18 BRUNOL4 PIK3C3 0.013382 27_P_24 UHNhscpg0010091 6 AF116727 SERPINB9 DKFZp686I15217 0.013441 15_A_21 UHNhscpg0005211 0.013475 4_J_10 UHNhscpg0001443 2 MTX2 HOXD1 BC013438 0.013508 8_G_23 UHNhscpg0002640 2 LOC284948 CAPG LOC284948 0.013544 22_P_18 UHNhscpg0008168 4 ZCCHC4 ANAPC4 0.013544 10_A_21 UHNhscpg0003344 2 ATF2 ATF2 ATP5G3 0.01369 5_O_22 UHNhscpg0001667 0.013696 3_O_5 UHNhscpg0000823 3 DKFZp667B1218 FLJ44290 ARF4 0.013701 4_O_17 UHNhscpg0001203 20 SPAG4 AK026266 CPNE1 0.013977 14_H_6 UHNhscpg0005150 6 TRERF1 BC064512 0.014023 29_A_12 UHNhscpg0010577 0.014126 25_C_21 UHNhscpg0008962 9 DMRT3 DMRT2 0.01414 25_N_11 UHNhscpg0009209 10 ZNF11B BMS1L 0.014271 29_K_22 UHNhscpg0010642 19 BC067129 AF161369 AKAP8 0.01428 30_P_22 UHNhscpg0011242 12 ERBB3 PA2G4 0.014354 22_K_20 UHNhscpg0007953 18 GALNT1 C18orf21 0.014364 20_I_7 UHNhscpg0007127 1 CAP350 LAP1B AF387614 0.014477 22_P_4 UHNhscpg0008161 12 AY070435 BC032019 0.01459 7_H_4 UHNhscpg0002537 5 NR2F1 ARRDC3 AK126015 0.014676 20_I_17 UHNhscpg0007132 13 BC067898 FLJ25952 FLJ34588 0.014719 17_B_13 UHNhscpg0006149 1 SLICK HF1 0.014788 7_B_3 UHNhscpg0002407 1 HLX1 AK128488 0.014815 28_F_17 UHNhscpg0010316 21 DSCAM PCP4 BACE2 0.014851 9_K_2 UHNhscpg0003113 22 TAFA5 AK128136 AK124622 0.01488 11_A_20 UHNhscpg0003804 3 TOP2B NGLY1 0.014937 28_I_12 UHNhscpg0010241 X IRS4 GUCY2F 0.015026 30_H_6 UHNhscpg0011186 10 TAF3 FLJ45983 0.015142 3_H_16 UHNhscpg0001060 5 BC041694 MYO10 FLJ34047 0.015153 5_F_4 UHNhscpg0001780 15 RaLP KIAA0256 0.015268 14_C_16 UHNhscpg0004949 6 STX11 UTRN 0.01535 10_N_6 UHNhscpg0003677 12 EPS8 STRAP 0.015669 27_G_2 UHNhscpg0009840 7 INHBA GLI3 0.015702 11_M_11 UHNhscpg0003776 X TM4SF2 MIG12 0.015705 27_P_9 UHNhscpg0009988 1 KCNK2 KCTD3 0.015708 18_L_5 UHNhscpg0006585 7 AASS CADPS2 0.015725 1_P_2 UHNhscpg0000366 18 BC031560 MPPE1 CIDEA 0.015744 23_D_13 UHNhscpg0008382 8 LACTB2 EYA1 0.01587 24_C_12 UHNhscpg0008669 0.016051 20_M_8 UHNhscpg0007243 0.016097 28_L_17 UHNhscpg0010352 14 MGEA6 FBXO33 0.016293 4_B_1 UHNhscpg0001299 12 LOC144233 AB046822 FAIM2 0.016297 5_B_21 UHNhscpg0001679 9 TLE1 TLE4 AY129016 0.016335 15_O_1 UHNhscpg0005283 2 LRP2 BBS5 0.016338 29_N_1 UHNhscpg0010740 4 SPOCK3 ANXA10 0.016419 6_E_18 UHNhscpg0001974 19 RPL28 MDAC1 UBE2S 0.016426 13_M_17 UHNhscpg0004544 13 AK092024 DIAPH3 TDRD3 0.016448 24_K_7 UHNhscpg0008619 2 AK095362 DKFZP434B1727 R3HDM 0.016496 29_B_7 UHNhscpg0010671 11 MMP26 OR52A1 0.016547 18_O_8 UHNhscpg0006514 3 EXOSC7 ZDHHC3 AK090511 0.016627 6_C_16 UHNhscpg0001962 20 C20orf85 AK128005 C20orf86 0.016633 32_I_7 UHNhscpg0011679 19 RFX2 RANBP3 BGR 0.016703 13_A_2 UHNhscpg0004556 2 IL1A IL1A IL1B 0.0168 26_P_22 UHNhscpg0009706 12 GRIP1 TIP120A 0.01681 27_H_1 UHNhscpg0009936 7 INHBA GLI3 0.016847 22_F_6 UHNhscpg0008102 9 WDR34 SET 0.016867 18_I_24 UHNhscpg0006486 1 AF529206 AIM2 IGSF4B 0.016927 28_L_24 UHNhscpg0010451 X ESX1L IL1RAPL2 0.016977 27_B_6 UHNhscpg0009998 11 RAB38 FLJ22104 CTSC 0.016979 4_P_17 UHNhscpg0001388 5 TRIM52 AK026811 AK128780 0.017076 5_O_2 UHNhscpg0001658 3 GORASP1 KIAA1449 STI2 0.017165 20_P_21 UHNhscpg0007348 3 GC20 MYRIP ENTPD3 0.017299 15_C_12 UHNhscpg0005312 5 BX640900 LOC285671 FLJ36754 0.017514 22_D_1 UHNhscpg0007992 1 LOC128153 CGI-115 0.01753 9_K_1 UHNhscpg0003022 3 BC015560 AL050097 AK094447 0.017641 14_J_7 UHNhscpg0005072 0.017675 24_D_21 UHNhscpg0008770 6 HIST1H3G HIST1H2BH HIST1H2BI 0.017719 12_F_7 UHNhscpg0004298 11 AF338191 SLC6A5 0.017853 13_K_18 UHNhscpg0004624 0.017858 16_A_8 UHNhscpg0005672 11 CSTF3 HIPK3 0.018077 20_B_20 UHNhscpg0007359 0.018279 23_I_23 UHNhscpg0008231 12 TAFA2 SLC16A7 USP15 0.018357 6_O_19 UHNhscpg0001942 19 POLD1 NR1H2 SPIB 0.018414 13_L_14 UHNhscpg0004808 11 CRSP6 BX641008 0.018541 28_M_11 UHNhscpg0010169 0.018649 20_J_4 UHNhscpg0007396 0.018792 29_H_21 UHNhscpg0010714 1 AK096396 WARS2 0.018795 21_P_3 UHNhscpg0007688 2 ADAM23 MDH1B 0.018826 4_P_11 UHNhscpg0001385 9 DMRT3 DMRT2 0.019173 11_D_19 UHNhscpg0003912 12 POP5 RNF10 CABP1 0.019201 12_D_20 UHNhscpg0004388 15 FLJ35695 FLJ39531 0.019232 22_M_9 UHNhscpg0007864 6 WTAP SOD2 WTAP 0.019304 24_A_1 UHNhscpg0008556 1 LAP1B LAP1B LAP1B 0.019337 21_C_5 UHNhscpg0007453 16 MT1F MT1K 0.019525 12_C_13 UHNhscpg0004101 11 RAB6A MRPL48 0.019842 26_E_2 UHNhscpg0009444 13 ESD CHDC1 HTR2A 0.019873 23_D_17 UHNhscpg0008384 0.019897 7_D_2 UHNhscpg0002512 9 ATP6V1G1 DFNB31 C9orf91 0.019971 19_N_9 UHNhscpg0006967 0.020068 7_A_4 UHNhscpg0002311 1 HLX1 AK128488 0.020079 9_H_8 UHNhscpg0003281 13 GPR80 MBNL2 0.020102 15_F_14 UHNhscpg0005512 0.020283 22_L_17 UHNhscpg0008048 5 ZFP62 BTNL8 0.02031 7_B_16 UHNhscpg0002507 6 SF3B5 STX11 0.020348 12_G_12 UHNhscpg0004216 11 WNT11 PRKRIR 0.020395 27_B_19 UHNhscpg0009909 1 DISC1 SIPA1L2 0.020503 3_L_16 UHNhscpg0001083 4 AF130075 HAND2 0.020801 20_G_14 UHNhscpg0007211 0.020834 5_H_23 UHNhscpg0001715 1 CSRP1 BC030568 0.021026 1_I_7 UHNhscpg0000052 4 ENPP6 AB037813 MGC24125 0.021068 5_E_4 UHNhscpg0001601 15 RaLP KIAA0256 0.021296 17_M_11 UHNhscpg0006031 8 AK128212 GPR20 0.021298 10_L_22 UHNhscpg0003673 5 BC011998 AB032953 0.021431 4_P_1 UHNhscpg0001380 7 PODXL PLXNA4 0.021503 16_N_22 UHNhscpg0005940 2 INSIG2 EN1 0.021559 28_E_9 UHNhscpg0010120 0.021596 14_J_24 UHNhscpg0005168 10 C10orf11 AK024492 KCNMA1 0.021632 10_H_3 UHNhscpg0003550 2 INSIG2 FLJ10996 INSIG2 0.021652 4_B_22 UHNhscpg0001402 1 NMNAT2 NMNAT2 AL050020 0.021676 32_K_23 UHNhscpg0011699 15 AKAP13 FLJ40113 AKAP13 0.022052 9_C_15 UHNhscpg0002981 12 SIAT8A KIAA0528 0.022105 16_P_6 UHNhscpg0005944 16 MGC3121 FBS1 0.022336 2_L_23 UHNhscpg0000629 22 CERK AB018310 CERK 0.022434 10_E_18 UHNhscpg0003458 4 BC039540 PGM2 0.022752 32_C_11 UHNhscpg0011645 3 BC047734 FHIT ID2B 0.022946 24_B_22 UHNhscpg0008854 11 BC047021 MGC13125 0.022959 6_H_1 UHNhscpg0002067 11 FN5 FLJ25393 AB051518 0.022974 20_C_9 UHNhscpg0007095 6 C6orf167 POU3F2 0.023079 14_P_4 UHNhscpg0005191 16 A2BP1 MGC2654 0.023131 6_J_12 UHNhscpg0002175 3 MGC2776 PPARG MGC2776 0.023172 18_E_9 UHNhscpg0006360 10 TLX1 LBX1 0.02332 18_H_5 UHNhscpg0006561 0.023347 12_H_11 UHNhscpg0004312 12 SMARCC2 RNF41 0.023356 27_J_22 UHNhscpg0010054 13 SOX21 ABCC4 0.023359 7_A_18 UHNhscpg0002318 19 U87593 BC068609 0.023427 11_H_11 UHNhscpg0003932 6 FLJ25791 ZBTB24 AK124171 0.023459 14_G_4 UHNhscpg0004966 2 AK126832 SIX3 0.023593 28_I_7 UHNhscpg0010143 21 SUMO3 ITGB2 0.02366 30_M_16 UHNhscpg0011035 10 TAF3 FLJ45983 0.023705 22_C_22 UHNhscpg0007906 1 FAM31B LHX9 0.023783 29_M_7 UHNhscpg0010551 0.024215 32_I_8 UHNhscpg0011775 0.024252 23_L_7 UHNhscpg0008427 X FLJ34960 SMPX 0.024306 25_C_22 UHNhscpg0009058 7 FLJ32110 MGC26647 AK098759 0.024334 11_J_7 UHNhscpg0003942 6 PACRG PARK2 QKI 0.02456 25_L_1 UHNhscpg0009192 15 AK094481 AK128197 0.024566 28_H_11 UHNhscpg0010325 6 MANEA EPHA7 MANEA 0.024648 29_E_16 UHNhscpg0010603 11 ACAT1 CUL5 NPAT 0.024874 6_G_11 UHNhscpg0001890 12 BT007195 ESPL1 C12orf10 0.025156 21_A_9 UHNhscpg0007443 3 LARS2 RIS1 LIMD1 0.025174 5_J_4 UHNhscpg0001804 6 PLA2G7 TDRD6 MEP1A 0.025361 14_G_13 UHNhscpg0004880 17 FLJ21865 AK123188 0.025488 25_P_6 UHNhscpg0009314 18 BRUNOL4 PIK3C3 0.025928 23_O_20 UHNhscpg0008361 6 KNSL8 MRPL2 PTK7 0.025937 4_O_16 UHNhscpg0001294 1 HSPA6 FCGR3B 0.026045 19_E_14 UHNhscpg0006832 15 BC038449 TYRO3 AK022696 0.026088 10_E_17 UHNhscpg0003365 4 BC039540 PGM2 0.026157 7_I_11 UHNhscpg0002267 7 MTERF AKAP9 0.026186 1_C_16 UHNhscpg0000116 21 ERG ERG AY204748 0.026233 31_M_13 UHNhscpg0011322 0.026387 13_K_6 UHNhscpg0004618 10 LDB1 LDB1 PPRC1 0.026418 14_G_9 UHNhscpg0004878 18 ZCCHC2 PLEKHE1 0.026477 20_I_4 UHNhscpg0007218 6 C6orf122 C6orf70 DLL1 0.026784 27_C_24 UHNhscpg0009827 0.026839 20_P_17 UHNhscpg0007346 11 RPS25 DLNB14 SLC37A4 0.026842 15_N_21 UHNhscpg0005470 20 VIAAT ACTR5 0.026855 28_L_20 UHNhscpg0010449 9 NFIB ZDHHC21 0.027163 18_B_13 UHNhscpg0006529 4 HAND2 AK021601 0.027198 9_M_1 UHNhscpg0003034 2 BC057764 AK096920 0.0272 26_P_9 UHNhscpg0009604 2 AK123485 AK127400 BC069026 0.027259 3_N_1 UHNhscpg0000998 4 CPZ GPR78 DUB3 0.027261 7_B_13 UHNhscpg0002412 10 C10orf69 C10orf69 CHUK 0.027423 10_E_2 UHNhscpg0003451 16 FLJ21816 FLJ21816 MGC3248 0.027501 28_M_19 UHNhscpg0010173 0.027605 30_N_8 UHNhscpg0011223 2 KIAA1715 HOXD13 0.027749 8_N_3 UHNhscpg0002849 11 BXMAS2-10 AF087878 0.027854 27_C_19 UHNhscpg0009729 7 PPP1R3A FOXP2 0.027926 27_D_13 UHNhscpg0009918 1 AK026930 AK127275 0.027977 31_I_24 UHNhscpg0011399 5 LNPEP AF119888 AF178574 0.028159 5_M_4 UHNhscpg0001647 8 FLJ46365 FLJ11767 0.028172 30_L_24 UHNhscpg0011219 13 LGR8 LOC196549 0.028185 3_L_15 UHNhscpg0000993 5 AY358358 BC062459 OR2V2 0.028281 7_K_18 UHNhscpg0002378 8 FLJ20421 AL080200 0.028303 16_C_9 UHNhscpg0005591 1 PBX1 BC066353 0.028307 6_G_10 UHNhscpg0001982 22 CERK C22orf4 0.028315 11_M_12 UHNhscpg0003872 X TM4SF2 MIG12 0.028371 15_C_8 UHNhscpg0005310 X PHEX SMS FLJ25735 0.028388 8_C_1 UHNhscpg0002608 9 ATP6V1G1 DFNB31 C9orf91 0.028401 14_L_10 UHNhscpg0005172 5 CEI IRX1 0.028432 3_O_9 UHNhscpg0000825 11 AK074061 RBM21 MTA2 0.028454 9_E_4 UHNhscpg0003080 11 TBRG1 PANX3 TBRG1 0.028517 26_I_12 UHNhscpg0009473 0.028544 27_L_14 UHNhscpg0010062 0.028582 2_C_2 UHNhscpg0000480 7 MTPN AF130088 CHRM2 0.028611 1_P_19 UHNhscpg0000284 10 NKX2-3 GOT1 SLC25A28 0.028633 25_M_17 UHNhscpg0009020 0.028911 28_P_22 UHNhscpg0010474 12 GRIP1 TIP120A 0.028989 7_F_3 UHNhscpg0002431 8 M13930 AF268618 X66258 0.029009 28_D_5 UHNhscpg0010298 1 KIAA0446 SEMA4A BGLAP 0.02902 24_K_2 UHNhscpg0008712 7 CHCHD3 FLJ40288 AF119872 0.029246 2_H_7 UHNhscpg0000600 0.029255 13_I_6 UHNhscpg0004606 19 LYL1 NFIX FLJ20244 0.02955 19_E_12 UHNhscpg0006831 2 LRP2 DHRS9 BBS5 0.02955 17_E_20 UHNhscpg0006082 9 GAS1 BC027471 0.029614 6_H_18 UHNhscpg0002167 5 FLJ13231 NUP155 0.029618 31_K_15 UHNhscpg0011311 4 LOC132321 PCDH10 0.029637 5_P_23 UHNhscpg0001757 0.029779 7_A_8 UHNhscpg0002313 6 AF116727 SERPINB9 DKFZp686I15217 0.029802 3_J_18 UHNhscpg0001073 18 BC062338 AK131011 SLC14A2 0.029848 22_F_10 UHNhscpg0008104 10 DNAJC1 COMMD3 0.029954 22_H_10 UHNhscpg0008116 2 EMX1 SPR SFXN5 0.029971 23_L_18 UHNhscpg0008528 12 C1QDC1 AK126754 0.030057 23_P_15 UHNhscpg0008455 1 PRRX1 AK130711 FLJ23550 0.030175 10_M_7 UHNhscpg0003407 15 BC059401 KIAA1199 0.030216 2_K_3 UHNhscpg0000438 11 RNF141 AMPD3 BC028123 0.030264 29_P_17 UHNhscpg0010760 15 VPS18 DLL4 0.030309 19_I_22 UHNhscpg0006859 19 PVRL2 LU TOMM40 0.030449 5_D_5 UHNhscpg0001683 1 CSRP1 BC030568 0.030484 1_A_22 UHNhscpg0000107 2 GAF1 SMYD5 0.03058 22_P_24 UHNhscpg0008171 0.030883 18_B_12 UHNhscpg0006624 8 MOS RPS20 PLAG1 0.031054 16_H_14 UHNhscpg0005900 2 BC014369 IRS1 0.031081 24_P_3 UHNhscpg0008833 13 NBEA RFC3 MAB21L1 0.031117 15_I_4 UHNhscpg0005344 0.031237 25_C_17 UHNhscpg0008960 7 GSTK1 TAS2R40 FLJ90586 0.031248 16_I_14 UHNhscpg0005723 14 C14orf101 OTX2 0.031285 29_A_11 UHNhscpg0010481 1 PAX7 FLJ38753 TAS1R2 0.031299 15_K_6 UHNhscpg0005357 11 MGC12965 KCNE3 POLD3 0.031308 24_P_4 UHNhscpg0008929 13 NBEA RFC3 MAB21L1 0.031309 13_C_18 UHNhscpg0004576 14 GARNL1 BRMS1L 0.031401 1_H_13 UHNhscpg0000233 11 ETS1 S67063 FLI1 0.031405 18_N_13 UHNhscpg0006601 0.031477 14_I_8 UHNhscpg0004979 19 U87593 BC068609 0.031501 19_K_17 UHNhscpg0006777 0.031587 7_J_24 UHNhscpg0002559 0.031631 4_I_11 UHNhscpg0001165 15 LOC90525 SLC28A2 0.031839 25_C_2 UHNhscpg0009048 19 THAP8 CLIPR-59 AK090617 0.031997 13_D_13 UHNhscpg0004669 19 ZNF160 FLJ12985 FLJ45949 0.03201 10_B_3 UHNhscpg0003514 6 BC067217 IL20RA 0.032026 17_F_15 UHNhscpg0006173 8 STMN4 TRIM35 0.03207 31_O_22 UHNhscpg0011434 16 BC064026 TNFRSF12A AK128093 0.032254 5_G_13 UHNhscpg0001527 20 PLCB1 PLCB4 0.032264 4_I_19 UHNhscpg0001169 0.032272 10_L_21 UHNhscpg0003582 13 ELF1 ELF1 WBP4 0.032309 19_B_20 UHNhscpg0006995 19 ZNF579 FLJ14768 0.032361 7_C_1 UHNhscpg0002226 0.03237 10_A_13 UHNhscpg0003340 3 POU1F1 HTR1F 0.032392 20_G_17 UHNhscpg0007121 1 CAP350 LAP1B AF387614 0.032409 16_M_13 UHNhscpg0005651 16 AL137562 FOXF1 0.032542 22_E_23 UHNhscpg0007823 0.032584 6_J_4 UHNhscpg0002171 19 HSPC023 AY358176 ZSWIM4 0.032793 21_O_14 UHNhscpg0007606 19 LOC91661 AB075859 LOC91661 0.032961 2_C_6 UHNhscpg0000482 11 EED PICALM HSPC138 0.033158 26_D_5 UHNhscpg0009530 1 PMF1 KIAA0446 BGLAP 0.033218 16_O_16 UHNhscpg0005758 0.033224 12_J_21 UHNhscpg0004329 17 BCAS3 TBX2 0.033558 22_N_24 UHNhscpg0008159 11 RAB6A MRPL48 0.0336 30_L_18 UHNhscpg0011216 7 PPP1R3A FOXP2 0.033607 19_K_20 UHNhscpg0006870 1 PTPN14 CENPF 0.03361 19_A_2 UHNhscpg0006804 20 SEC23B HARS2 0.03403 20_C_17 UHNhscpg0007098 16 FLJ31606 BC045670 CDK10 0.034079 24_P_14 UHNhscpg0008934 0.034211 19_D_15 UHNhscpg0006913 19 AF322648 AK128554 ZNF576 0.034323 28_B_19 UHNhscpg0010293 5 TAF7 SLC25A2 PCDHGA1 0.03452 23_E_16 UHNhscpg0008299 8 MGC1136 MGC1136 AY358147 0.034637 21_H_14 UHNhscpg0007737 11 BC006136 DIBD1 CRYAB 0.034676 15_E_13 UHNhscpg0005231 8 BC054009 LOC83690 AF315715 0.03482 15_N_5 UHNhscpg0005464 18 HFL-EDDG1 AFG3L2 HFL-EDDG1 0.03498 23_N_1 UHNhscpg0008436 19 BCL3 AK128234 CBLC 0.035099 20_L_17 UHNhscpg0007327 4 PCDH10 PCDH18 0.035379 9_C_3 UHNhscpg0002975 12 CNTN1 PDZRN4 0.035408 3_J_7 UHNhscpg0000977 0.03546 11_N_1 UHNhscpg0003963 16 SIAH1 FLJ31821 0.035617 27_B_20 UHNhscpg0010005 2 PTHR2 MAP2 0.035801 9_G_8 UHNhscpg0003093 0.035881 12_I_7 UHNhscpg0004134 6 PACRG PARK2 QKI 0.03593 26_G_10 UHNhscpg0009460 6 AJ504716 HLA-E 0.036179 13_A_7 UHNhscpg0004465 7 FLJ32110 MGC26647 AK098759 0.036195 4_G_22 UHNhscpg0001252 1 DUSP10 DUSP10 AK126238 0.036239 3_H_12 UHNhscpg0001058 19 MGC62100 ZNF345 0.036309 14_L_2 UHNhscpg0005169 0.036444 1_B_4 UHNhscpg0000288 13 BC062461 ADPRHL1 0.036513 2_O_8 UHNhscpg0000552 9 TTF1 KIAA0625 FLJ46082 0.036533 20_B_18 UHNhscpg0007358 10 PAX2 AY153483 C10orf6 0.036542 20_A_19 UHNhscpg0007088 5 SLIT3 BC032027 0.036828 3_B_4 UHNhscpg0001022 7 ABCB5 SP8 0.03683 16_E_12 UHNhscpg0005698 2 AK095266 MAP1D DLX1 0.036917 16_F_4 UHNhscpg0005883 1 PGD KIF1B CORT 0.037012 29_P_21 UHNhscpg0010762 20 SIRPB2 PTPNS1 0.037071 1_J_19 UHNhscpg0000248 14 C14orf29 AF223938 C14orf29 0.037126 9_A_17 UHNhscpg0002970 6 BC064365 SESN1 C6orf182 0.037361 28_C_16 UHNhscpg0010207 3 BBX CD47 0.037375 23_H_11 UHNhscpg0008405 0.037458 31_A_2 UHNhscpg0011340 2 GBX2 ASB18 0.03753 3_L_14 UHNhscpg0001082 16 MGC2654 A2BP1 AY203956 0.037601 7_N_16 UHNhscpg0002579 9 KIAA1539 UNC13B 0.037621 13_I_17 UHNhscpg0004521 18 EPB41L3 L3MBTL4 0.037643 6_J_24 UHNhscpg0002181 8 D63477 ADCY8 KCNQ3 0.037702 20_H_8 UHNhscpg0007387 11 AK027747 CRY2 0.037756 30_L_21 UHNhscpg0011122 3 NME6 LOC285231 0.037869 30_M_22 UHNhscpg0011038 2 KIAA1715 HOXD13 0.037981 16_L_9 UHNhscpg0005826 17 MGC10561 ENPP7 CBX8 0.038235 14_P_9 UHNhscpg0005106 10 ADAM12 FANK1 AF435960 0.038274 28_C_17 UHNhscpg0010112 13 TUBGCP3 TUBGCP3 FLJ26443 0.03851 12_F_20 UHNhscpg0004400 0.038557 16_A_2 UHNhscpg0005669 6 RPL10A FANCE TEAD3 0.038697 20_F_7 UHNhscpg0007287 12 FLJ22662 FLJ22662 GUCY2C 0.038746 6_P_12 UHNhscpg0002208 2 FLJ36175 BAZ2B 0.038865 17_A_22 UHNhscpg0006060 1 ZP4 CHRM3 0.038987 15_L_13 UHNhscpg0005456 0.039097 8_A_22 UHNhscpg0002698 13 IPF1 GSH1 CDX2 0.0393 28_J_3 UHNhscpg0010333 20 AB033098 AF451990 0.03941 18_D_24 UHNhscpg0006642 10 IDE AF336887 KIF11 0.039458 1_G_20 UHNhscpg0000142 0.039464 4_F_22 UHNhscpg0001426 8 AK130123 AK129682 PPP2R2A 0.039612 10_P_5 UHNhscpg0003597 18 RNMT MC5R 0.039616 24_M_10 UHNhscpg0008728 6 PECI CDYL 0.039667 18_M_24 UHNhscpg0006510 10 LGI1 TMEM20 0.039698 5_O_11 UHNhscpg0001569 6 TNFAIP3 OLIG3 TNFAIP3 0.039833 26_P_10 UHNhscpg0009700 17 AK055561 HT008 0.040086 9_P_19 UHNhscpg0003240 0.04009 20_G_22 UHNhscpg0007215 3 L0051244 GRIP2 DKFZP434N1817 0.040283 12_D_24 UHNhscpg0004390 18 RAX AK123184 0.040409 12_P_12 UHNhscpg0004456 3 TIPARP SSR3 TIPARP 0.040551 17_K_24 UHNhscpg0006118 7 SHH MGC20460 AK124321 0.040657 24_L_7 UHNhscpg0008811 1 L0057821 BLZF1 SLC19A2 0.040712 9_F_19 UHNhscpg0003180 2 AK126832 SIX3 0.040786 20_M_7 UHNhscpg0007150 6 ECHDC1 RNF146 KIAA0408 0.040861 25_H_18 UHNhscpg0009272 14 RIPK3 NFATC4 0.040916 23_K_17 UHNhscpg0008240 X IRS4 GUCY2F 0.041029 20_C_5 UHNhscpg0007093 1 FLJ20519 BNIPL SPEC1 0.041204 23_F_18 UHNhscpg0008492 9 AF091236 ACO1 0.041207 27_A_13 UHNhscpg0009714 1 D50923 GALNT2 0.041353 15_H_9 UHNhscpg0005431 9 AL834325 MAPKAP1 0.041379 17_H_8 UHNhscpg0006276 14 C14orf102 CALM1 0.04138 1_C_8 UHNhscpg0000112 11 SESN3 MGC33371 0.0415 4_F_13 UHNhscpg0001329 3 PLXND1 PLXND1 AK123339 0.04154 10_O_9 UHNhscpg0003420 9 C9orf40 AK126029 C9orf41 0.04154 15_O_10 UHNhscpg0005383 2 PTPN4 MGC10993 EPB41L5 0.041597 9_J_2 UHNhscpg0003289 14 ZNF219 BC031469 0.041602 28_N_4 UHNhscpg0010453 10 NEBL FLJ45187 0.04164 4_E_16 UHNhscpg0001237 15 RPLP1 AK127674 0.041726 23_K_8 UHNhscpg0008331 X FLJ34960 SMPX 0.041849 2_H_8 UHNhscpg0000691 15 AP3S2 ANPEP AK055252 0.041961 21_H_11 UHNhscpg0007649 14 AK125925 DIO2 BC036939 0.04204 16_P_23 UHNhscpg0005857 0.042054 14_K_16 UHNhscpg0004995 1 FAAH DMBX1 0.042075 20_L_15 UHNhscpg0007326 17 MSF AK123491 MSF 0.042076 13_A_17 UHNhscpg0004473 6 DJ467N11.1 HELIC1 GRIK2 0.042094 4_J_20 UHNhscpg0001448 3 BC033771 MGC34132 UBE1C 0.042254 14_K_17 UHNhscpg0004905 0.042693 4_O_15 UHNhscpg0001202 1 HSPA6 FCGR3B 0.043038 5_A_22 UHNhscpg0001586 9 TLE1 TLE4 AY129016 0.043119 6_L_8 UHNhscpg0002183 0.043172 16_D_23 UHNhscpg0005786 2 AB051465 FLJ20701 0.043279 25_J_17 UHNhscpg0009188 3 AK127782 KIF9 0.043366 32_C_12 UHNhscpg0011741 3 BC047734 FHIT ID2B 0.043577 9_F_12 UHNhscpg0003271 10 CRTAC1 C10orf28 0.043623 6_M_17 UHNhscpg0001932 16 BX537874 RBL2 0.043638 24_P_6 UHNhscpg0008930 5 CDH12 PMCHL1 PRDM9 0.043787 3_A_1 UHNhscpg0000745 18 MOCOS AK128053 0.043902 29_A_6 UHNhscpg0010574 4 PCDH10 PCDH18 0.044031 19_L_14 UHNhscpg0007051 9 MPDZ AK098775 NFIB 0.044216 14_K_7 UHNhscpg0004900 2 MRPL35 IMMT C2orf23 0.044493 29_J_10 UHNhscpg0010816 0.044564 31_P_4 UHNhscpg0011617 13 AK056283 BC030118 WDFY2 0.044576 14_M_21 UHNhscpg0004919 21 C21orf29 KRTAP18-12 UBE2G2 0.044657 27_D_23 UHNhscpg0009923 3 RBMS3 TGFBR2 0.044718 10_B_22 UHNhscpg0003616 7 MGC33530 SEC61G 0.044835 29_A_19 UHNhscpg0010485 14 NOVA1 FOXG1B 0.04487 19_C_5 UHNhscpg0006723 2 VRK2 AB067499 FANCL 0.044901 14_I_14 UHNhscpg0004982 11 CALCB SOX6 0.044963 17_G_24 UHNhscpg0006096 12 FLJ40089 SNRPF MGC35366 0.045052 4_I_8 UHNhscpg0001257 12 AB006624 NAB2 0.045076 12_P_2 UHNhscpg0004450 4 AF151033 FBXW7 0.045136 5_E_5 UHNhscpg0001511 2 TANK PSMD14 0.045144 24_J_11 UHNhscpg0008801 0.045282 7_P_23 UHNhscpg0002499 15 LACTB TPM1 RPS27L 0.045296 24_L_5 UHNhscpg0008810 13 ALG5 SMAD9 EXOSC8 0.045422 5_I_1 UHNhscpg0001533 18 CCDC5 ATP5A1 C18orf25 0.045521 6_O_11 UHNhscpg0001937 13 AF144054 LIG4 0.045598 12_G_9 UHNhscpg0004123 22 BC052239 MGC11256 AK123987 0.045829 20_J_7 UHNhscpg0007310 2 G6PC2 ABCB11 0.04586 27_K_19 UHNhscpg0009777 2 COL5A2 FLJ12519 0.045959 8_O_5 UHNhscpg0002678 9 BC064135 PSIP1 C9orf93 0.046033 13_B_12 UHNhscpg0004749 5 AMACR MATP C1QTNF3 0.046101 8_G_6 UHNhscpg0002726 5 AK057601 LOC375449 AB002301 0.046186 16_1_18 UHNhscpg0005725 4 LOC285513 SNCA 0.046489 32_A_21 UHNhscpg0011638 0.046497 13_L_20 UHNhscpg0004811 1 KCNH1 MART2 RCOR3 0.046568 5_A_21 UHNhscpg0001496 9 TLE1 TLE4 AY129016 0.046688 3_P_3 UHNhscpg0001011 16 SHCBP1 SHCBP1 VPS35 0.046702 13_E_7 UHNhscpg0004489 14 BMP4 DDHD1 BC064965 0.046837 25_B_13 UHNhscpg0009138 1 TGS ADPRT 0.046861 10_B_16 UHNhscpg0003613 0.046894 16_J_8 UHNhscpg0005909 17 MMD FLJ10970 0.04699 16_P_15 UHNhscpg0005853 10 TCF7L2 AK027209 HABP2 0.047053 21_H_24 UHNhscpg0007742 4 CSN3 NYD-SP26 0.047359 11_L_3 UHNhscpg0003952 7 AY129022 AK125308 0.047399 17_C_3 UHNhscpg0005967 1 NGFB TSPAN-2 VANGL1 0.047449 12_B_12 UHNhscpg0004372 2 LOC129401 DUSP19 LOC91752 0.04764 24_J_15 UHNhscpg0008803 2 AK123152 REPRIMO AK090913 0.047705 17_A_5 UHNhscpg0005956 7 DLD SLC26A3 LAMB1 0.047745 5_E_3 UHNhscpg0001510 0.047776 16_J_5 UHNhscpg0005812 17 KCNJ2 BC034818 0.047839 29_E_21 UHNhscpg0010510 2 MGC43122 GPR66 0.048083 15_H_18 UHNhscpg0005525 1 ALDH4A1 TAS1R2 AK024480 0.048166 25_J_16 UHNhscpg0009283 6 AKAP12 FTHFSDC1 ZBTB2 0.048271 19_B_5 UHNhscpg0006897 11 RRM1 SSA1 0.048622 22_D_13 UHNhscpg0007998 22 MAPK1 YPEL1 PPM1F 0.04889 30_A_20 UHNhscpg0010965 0.048951 23_E_14 UHNhscpg0008298 0.048971 14_O_16 UHNhscpg0005019 6 IFNGR1 OLIG3 0.048988 30_F_18 UHNhscpg0011180 6 TTLL2 UNC93A TCP10 0.049143 6_A_19 UHNhscpg0001858 12 METAP2 NTN4 AF336880 0.049163 1_M_13 UHNhscpg0000079 7 IGFBP3 AF119858 0.049255 17_F_7 UHNhscpg0006169 8 DUSP4 BC003524 0.049442 13_J_20 UHNhscpg0004799 2 FANCL VRK2 BCL11A 0.049728 15_F_3 UHNhscpg0005416 12 FLJ38663 MPHOSPH9 FLJ38663 0.049773 7_F_16 UHNhscpg0002531 0.049854 18_N_1 UHNhscpg0006595 20 AY203949 AK127957 0.049961 15_B_2 UHNhscpg0005484 19 RFXANK MEF2B TRA16

TABLE 6 FDR-significant DNA methylation changes observed for genes that are functionally- or positionally- linked to major psychosis. See Table 9 for more information on these loci, and Table 10 and FIG. 17 for a full list of FDR-significant loci. Gene name and symbol Methylation change(s) observed Autism Susceptibility Candidate 2 (AUTS2 or SZ male ↑ KIAA0442) Dysbindin (DTNBP1) BD female ↑, PSY female ↑ Fbj Murine Osteosarcoma Viral Oncogene Homolog B PSY female ↓ (FOSB) Glutamate Receptor, Ionotropic, AmpA 2 (GRIA2) SZ male ↓, PSY male ↓ Glutaminase 2 (GLS2) SZ male ↑ Homo sapiens Hey-like transcriptional repressor SZ female ↑, BD female ↑ (HELT) HLA Complex Group 9 (HCG9) SZ female ↑, PSY female ↑ Islet 2 Transcription Factor, Lim/Homeodomain (ISL2) PSY female ↑ Lim Homeobox Protein 5 (LHX5) SZ female ↑, BD female ↑, PSY female ↑ Lim Homeobox Transcription Factor 1, Beta (LMX1B) SZ female ↓, PSY female ↓ Multiple Alpha Helices and RNA-Linker protein-1 SZ female ↑, BD female ↑, PSY female ↑ (MARLIN-1) Neuregulin 2 (NRG2) BD female ↓, PSY female ↓ Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4, Group A, Member 2 SZ female ↑ (NR4A2 or NURR1) Phospholipase A2, Group 4B (PLA2G4B) SZ male ↑, PSY male ↑, PSY female ↑ Potassium Channel, Inwardly Rectifying, Subfamily J, SZ male ↑, PSY male ↑ Member 6 (KCNJ6 or GIRK2) Retinoic Acid Inducible-1 (RAI1) SZ female ↑ Ribosomal Protein L39 (RPL39) BD female ↑, PSY female ↑ Secretogranin II (SCG2) PSY female ↓ Solute Carrier Family 17, Member 6 (SLC17A6 or SZ female ↓ VGLUT2) Solute Carrier Family 17, Member 7 (SLC17A7 or SZ female ↑, PSY female ↑ VGLUT1) Vacuolar Protein Sorting 33B (VPS33B) PSY male ↑ WD Repeat Domain 18 (WDR18) SZ male ↓, PSY male ↓ Wingless-Type Mmtv Integration Site Family, Member PSY female ↑ 1 (WNT1)

TABLE 7 Description of the samples utilized in this study. A CTRL SZ BD Number 35 35 35 Mean age 44.1 42.6 45.3 and range (31-59) (19-59) (19-64) Race 35 white 35 white 33 white 1 Black 1 Native American Sex 26 M, 9 F 26 M, 9 F 17 M, 18 F Diagnosis no axis I 27 undifferen- 26 BP I tiated 4 BP II 7 paranoid 4 BP NOS 1 disorganized 1 BP-SA Psychotic 0 35+ 20+, 11−, Features 4 unclear Cause of death 32 cardiac 14 cardiac 12 cardiac 3 other 13 other medical 4 other medical medical 1 accident 4 accidents 7 suicide 15 suicide B Male CTRL SZ BD (N = 22) (N = 26) (N = 15) Postmortem 26.9 31.4 37.8 Interval (11.7) (17.0) (20.6) Refrigerator 2.9 5.67 7.80 Interval (1.6) (4.3)* (7.4)* Brain pH 6.65 6.44 6.46 (0.26) (0.25)* (0.26)* Brain 1486.4 1444.6 1467.6 Weight (137.9) (104.8) (112.9) Lifetime 0.73 2.36 2.86 Alcohol Use (0.94) (2.00)** (1.70)** Lifetime 0.27 2.08 2.93 Drug Use (0.70) (2.00)** (2.05)** Female CTRL SZ BD (N = 6) (N = 9) (N = 17) Postmortem 35.50 30.88 39.59 Interval (9.6) (9.1) (17.7) Refrigerator 2.83 6.25 13.18 Interval (0.4) (4.1) (12.7)* Brain pH 6.45 6.61 6.44 (0.30) (0.17) (0.29) Brain 1314.2 1418.1 1316.2 Weight (106.3) (128.8) (111.4) Lifetime 1.00 1.38 2.29 Alcohol Use (1.55) (2.00) (1.86)* Lifetime 0.17 0.29 1.76 Drug Use (0.41) (0.76) (1.8)* C CTRL BD Number 19 20 Age 41.3 (26-60) 44.2 (22-60) Sex All male All male A Summary of demographic data for the brain samples obtained from the Stanley Foundation. B Comparison of brain samples utilized for microarray-based epigenomic profiling. N refers to the number in each group passing microarray quality control. Given are the mean for each group with SD. *= t-test p-value <0.05; **= t-test p-value <0.001. Affected individuals were found to have significantly lower brain pH (male SZ, male BD), and higher lifetime alcohol and drug use (male SZ, male BD, female BD) compared to unaffected controls of the same sex. These data mirror those reported elsewhere^(1,2). C Summary of available demographic data for the germline samples used in this study.

TABLE 8  Primer sequences used for testing of selected loci by pyrosequencing of bisulfite modified DNA samples Primer Name Oligo Sequence ARVCF-INT3-F BIOTIN-AAGAGGAGGGTTAAATTGTTA (SEQ ID NO: 25) ARVCF-INT3-PYRO TCAAACTAAAACCAAAAC (SEQ ID NO: 26) ARVCF-INT3-R ATTAACTTAAAAAAACCCTAACC (SEQ ID NO: 27) BDNF-EXON2-F BIOTIN-TGTTTTTATGAAAGAAGTAAATATT (SEQ ID NO: 28) BDNF-EXON2-PYRO AATCCTCATCCAACAA (SEQ ID NO: 29) BDNF-EXON2-R TCCTTATTATTTTCTTCATTAAAC (SEQ ID NO: 30) BDNF-INT1A-F GATGTTTTATTGAGTTTAGGTT (SEQ ID NO: 31) BDNF-INT1A-PYRO TTGGGAGTAGAAGGTTT (SEQ ID NO: 32) BDNF-INT1A-R BIOTIN-AACTAATTAATAACTCTATCCAA (SEQ ID NO: 33) BDNF-INT1B-F BIOTIN-GGGTTAGATATTATTTAGTTT (SEQ ID NO: 34) BDNF-INT1B-PYRO AAAAATAAAAACAAACCC (SEQ ID NO: 35) BDNF-INT1B-R ACTAAAACTAAAACTAAAACAC (SEQ ID NO: 36) BDNF-PRM-F TAGGGTTTTTTGGGAGAGTT (SEQ ID NO: 37) BDNF-PRM-PYRO TTATTTTAGTTTTGGTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 38) BDNF-PRM-R BIOTIN-ATTACCCACAAAAACCTATATAAA (SEQ ID NO: 39) COMT-EXON4-F BIOTIN-GTGTTTGGGGATTTAAGTTT (SEQ ID NO: 40) COMT-EXON4-PYRO TCAAACATACACACCTTA (SEQ ID NO: 41) COMT-EXON4-R ACCCTTTTTCCAAATCTAAC (SEQ ID NO: 42) COMT-PRM-F TTTGAGTAAGATTAGATTAAGAGGT (SEQ ID NO: 43) COMT-PRM-PYRO GGGATATTTTGGTTAT (SEQ ID NO: 44) COMT-PRM-R BIOTIN-ACAACCCTAACTACCCCAAAAAC (SEQ ID NO: 45) DRD4-F GGTAGAGTTTGAGTTTAGGTT (SEQ ID NO: 46) DRD4-PYRO TAGATATTAGGTGGAT (SEQ ID NO: 47) DRD4-R BIOTIN-ACCAAACCAAACCCTAAAAC (SEQ ID NO: 48) DTNBP1-ARRAY-F BIOTIN-TTGGGAAGTGTGGTTTGTAGGAA (SEQ ID NO: 49) DTNBP1-ARRAY-F BIOTIN-TTGGGAAGTGTGGTTTGTAGGAA (SEQ ID NO: 50) DTNBP1-ARRAY-PYRO CACCTTTAAACCTCCTATT (SEQ ID NO: 51) DTNBP1-ARRAY-PYRO CACCTTTAAACCTCCTATT (SEQ ID NO: 52) DTNBP1-ARRAY-R ACCTCCAAATATAACCACCATCTC (SEQ ID NO: 53) DTNBP1-ARRAY-R ACCTCCAAATATAACCACCATCTC (SEQ ID NO: 54) DTNBP1-INT1-F TTTTTTTTGTTTAGGAGTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 55) DTNBP1-INT1-PYRO GGTAAAGGTAGAGAAAGGA (SEQ ID NO: 56) DTNBP1-INT1-R BIOTIN-CTAAAACTAAACCAACCACCCTC (SEQ ID NO: 57) DTNBP1-PRM-F BIOTIN-GAAGGGTTTTTAGTATTGT (SEQ ID NO: 58) DTNBP1-PRM-PYRO AAAAAAACTAAAATTAC (SEQ ID NO: 59) DTNBP1-PRM-R AAAAACTACTAACCCTCTC (SEQ ID NO: 60) GAD1-INT1-F BIOTIN-GTTAGGTATTTGTAGAGGAGTT (SEQ ID NO: 61) GAD1-INT1-PYRO CTAATTCCCTCTC (SEQ ID NO: 62) GAD1-INT1-R TCACCTCCAACTACTTCCTC (SEQ ID NO: 63) GAD1-INT3-F BIOTIN-TAGTTGAGTGATTTTGGTTGAAT (SEQ ID NO: 64) GAD1-INT3-PYRO TACAAAAAACACCCAAA (SEQ ID NO: 65) GAD1-INT3-R CTCTACTCTAACTACAAACTA (SEQ ID NO: 66) GAD1-PRM-F BIOTIN-GAAGGTATGAAGAGGTAAGT (SEQ ID NO: 67) GAD1-PRM-PYRO AAATTCCCACCAAAAA (SEQ ID NO: 68) GAD1-PRM-R AAAATTCTCCCTTTACAATATTTAA (SEQ ID NO: 69) GRIA2-F AAGATAGTAGGGTTTGGTGAGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 70) GRIA2-PYRO ATAATTAGTAATTAGGTTTTTATAT (SEQ ID NO: 71) GRIA2-R BIOTIN-TCTCTTCTCCCTCTCTCCTCTCT (SEQ ID NO: 72) GRIA2-SS1 ATACAACAAAACTAATCTCC (SEQ ID NO: 73) GRIA2-SS2 GAGTTGTGTTTTTTTAG (SEQ ID NO: 74) GRIN2B-F GGTTTGTGTTGAATGGGTTT (SEQ ID NO: 75) GRIN2B-PYRO1 TGAATGGGTTTTGAT (SEQ ID NO: 76) GRIN2B-PYRO2 GGGTTTTATTTGTAA (SEQ ID NO: 77) GRIN2B-R BIOTIN-TCATCCCTTCACCTAACAAAAA (SEQ ID NO: 78) HCG9-F BIOTIN-GGATTTTAGGGAGAGGATAGGG (SEQ ID NO: 79) HCG9-PYRO CTAAACTATTCCTATAAATAACATT (SEQ ID NO: 80) HCG9-R CCCCACCCCCTACACTTT (SEQ ID NO: 81) HELT-PRM-F BIOTIN-AGTGTGTATGGAATGAAATGTGGT (SEQ ID NO: 82) HELT-PRM-PYRO CCCACTCCCATTTTTA (SEQ ID NO: 83) HELT-PRM-R CCCTCCCAAATTACTCTACCA (SEQ ID NO: 84) KCNJ6-F TTTTAGTTTTAGAAATAAAATAGAAA (SEQ ID NO: 85) KCNJ6-R ATAATCTCTTACTCAACAAAAACTC (SEQ ID NO: 86) KCNJ6-SS GGAGAGTTGAATTTAGAGAGT (SEQ ID NO: 87) LHX5-F TTATAAATTTAGGAGGTGTAGGGATTT (SEQ ID NO: 88) LHX5-R CCCAAAACTCAACAAAAAAAATAAAT (SEQ ID NO: 89) LHX5-SS1 TGGGGTTTTGAAGGATTGA (SEQ ID NO: 90) LHX5-SS2 ATTTTGTATTAGGTATT (SEQ ID NO: 91) MARLIN1-F TAAGGTTTTAGTGTGGGGTGGTTT (SEQ ID NO: 92) MARLIN1-R AAACAAATATAATCCCCACCTTCA (SEQ ID NO: 93) MARLIN1-SS AGTTATTTTGTGAATGT (SEQ ID NO: 94) MTHFR-PRMA-F GTTAAGTATTGGGATATTAAGTT (SEQ ID NO: 95) MTHFR-PRMA-PYRO GATTTTTAGAAAGGTTT (SEQ ID NO: 96) MTHFR-PRMA-R BIOTIN-ATAACTCAATAACCTAATAACTAA (SEQ ID NO: 97) MTHFR-PRMB-F TAGTTATTGGGAGTTATATTAATT (SEQ ID NO: 98) MTHFR-PRMB-PYRO GGGAGGTTGTTTGT (SEQ ID NO: 99) MTHFR-PRMB-R BIOTIN-CTCCAACAACCTAACACCTA (SEQ ID NO: 100) NR4A2-F TGTGGGGAGGGTGTAATAAAAGTA (SEQ ID NO: 101) NR4A2-PYRO GGGGAGGGTGTAATAAA (SEQ ID NO: 102) NR4A2-R BIOTIN-CACTCCCATTCCCTTTCAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 103) NRG1-INTRON1-F BIOTIN-GAGTGGGATTTGGGTTATAGGAGT (SEQ ID NO: 104) NRG1-INTRON1-PYRO CTTACCCTATACCCCAAA (SEQ ID NO: 105) NRG1-INTRON1-R ACACAAAACTAAATCAAAATAAACC (SEQ ID NO: 106) NRG1-PRM-F GGAGATTTTGTTTGGGGTAT (SEQ ID NO: 107) NRG1-PRM-PYRO GAGTAGTTTTTTTAGG (SEQ ID NO: 108) NRG1-PRM-R BIOTIN-CAACCCCTTTTCCTCCC (SEQ ID NO: 109) RELN-PRMA-F BIOTIN-ACTCCCAAAATTACTTTAAACC (SEQ ID NO: 110) RELN-PRMA-PYRO TTTTAAGAAGGTGTGGAG (SEQ ID NO: 111) RELN-PRMA-R GGGGTTTTAAGAAGGTGTG (SEQ ID NO: 112) RELN-PRMB-F GTTTGAAGGGGAAGGTTAGTT (SEQ ID NO: 113) RELN-PRMB-PYRO AGGGAAGGAGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 114) RELN-PRMB-R BIOTIN-AAAATCCTCTACAAATAAAACTCTA (SEQ ID NO: 115) RELN-PRMC-F GGTTGTTATGGTTTTTGTTTTTAAG (SEQ ID NO: 116) RELN-PRMC-PYRO AAGGGATGAGAAAGGTG (SEQ ID NO: 117) RELN-PRMC-R BIOTIN-AAATACTCATTTCCCTACATATTAC (SEQ ID NO: 118) RPL39-F BIOTIN-GGTAGTGTGTTAGGGGTATTTTGT (SEQ ID NO: 119) RPL39-PYRO CCTCTAAAAAAATAACACTTACTC (SEQ ID NO: 120) RPL39-R ACTATCCCTTCCCACACCTC (SEQ ID NO: 121) SLC17A7-F AGGAGGGTGATTTTTTTTTTATTA (SEQ ID NO: 122) SLC17A7-PYRO GGGTGGGAGGAGTAGA (SEQ ID NO: 123) SLC17A7-R BIOTIN-AAACCCAAAAACACAACCAATC (SEQ ID NO: 124) THEM59-F BIOTIN-GGGTTATTAATTAATTATTTGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 125) THEM59-PYRO AAATTTATCCTACACTACCCT (SEQ ID NO: 126) THEM59-R ACTCCTATTTTCCTCCCTAATCC (SEQ ID NO: 127) U-CG1A CGTGGAGACTGACTACCAGAT (SEQ ID NO: 128) U-CG1B AGTTACATCTGGTAGTCAGTCTCCA (SEQ ID NO: 129) WDR18-F TTGGGAGGATTATTTGAGTTTAGG (SEQ ID NO: 130) WDR18-PYRO AAATGTTTAGGAGGAAAAG (SEQ ID NO: 131) WDR18-R BIOTIN-ACTTCTTCCAAAACCCAAAA (SEQ ID NO: 132)

TABLE 9 FDR significant microarray differences for spots located near to genes that can be putatively linked to the etiology of PSY. FDR-Significant Gene name and Probe Methylation symbol Location change* Link to psychosis Autism 7q11.22 SZ MALE↑ Spans a translocation Susceptibility breakpoint associated with Candidate 2 (AUTS2 mental retardation and autism; or highly expressed in frontal KIAA0442) cortex of brain³ Dysbindin 6p22.3 BD FEMALE↑ A compelling candidate gene (DTNBP1){circumflex over ( )} PSY FEMALE↑ for PSY (see also Table 1) nominated by both association and linkage studies^(4,5) Fbj Murine 19q13.32 PSY FEMALE↓ FOS proteins have been Osteosarcoma Viral implicated as regulators of cell Oncogene Homolog proliferation, differentiation, B (FOSB) and transformation. FOSB is expressed following chronic antipsychotic drug treatment⁶ Glutamate Receptor, 4q31.1 SZ MALE↓ One of four ionotropic Ionotropic, AmpA 2 PSY MALE↓ glutamate receptor subunits, (GRIA2) found to be differentially expressed in the brains of SZ patients^(7,8) Glutaminase 2 12q13.2 SZ MALE↑ Catalyzes the hydrolysis of (GLS2) glutamine to glutamate; found to be elevated in brains of SZ patients⁹ Homo sapiens Hey- 4q35.1 SZ FEMALE↑ HELT determines GABAergic like transcriptional BD FEMALE↑ over glutamatergic neuronal repressor (HELT) fate in the developing mesencephalon¹⁰ HLA Complex 6p21.33 SZ FEMALE↑ Located within the MHC class Group 9 (HCG9) PSY FEMALE↑ I region on chromosome 6p implicated in a genome-scan meta-analysis of schizophrenia⁵. The function of the encoded protein has not been determined, but immune- system disruption reported in SZ. Islet 2 Transcription 15q24.3 PSY FEMALE↑ A transcriptional factor that Factor, defines subclasses of Lim/Homeodomain motoneurons in the nervous (ISL2) system. 15q24.3 falls within a region implicated in a genome- scan meta-analysis of schizophrenia⁵ Lim Homeobox 12q24.13 SZ FEMALE↑ A transcriptional regulator Protein 5 (LHX5) BD FEMALE↑ involved in the control of PSY FEMALE↑ differentiation and development of the forebrain and knockout mice show learning impairments and motor dysfunction¹¹ Lim Homeobox 9q33.3 SZ FEMALE↓ A transcription factor Transcription Factor PSY FEMALE↓ important for the development 1, Beta (LMX1B) of dopaminergic neurons in the brain. Multiple Alpha 4p16.1 SZ FEMALE↑ A RNA-binding protein widely Helices and RNA- BD FEMALE↑ expressed in the brain that Linker protein-1 PSY FEMALE↑ associates with GABA(B) (MARLIN-1 or receptors¹². The 4p16.1 region JAKMIP1) has been linked to both BD and SZ¹³ Neuregulin 2 5q31.3 BD FEMALE↓ Neuregulins are a family of (NRG2) PSY FEMALE↓ growth and differentiation factors that interact with ERBB receptors to induce the growth and differentiation of epithelial, neuronal, and glial cells. The gene for another neuregulin, NRG1, has been widely implicated in SZ¹⁴. 5q31.1 falls within a region implicated in a genome-scan meta-analysis of SZ⁵ Nuclear Receptor 2q24.1 SZ FEMALE↑ Plays a critical role in the Subfamily 4, Group development of midbrain A, Member 2 dopaminergic neurons. (NR4A2 or NURR1) Reduced expression observed in BD and SZ brains¹⁵. Phospholipase A2, 15q15.1 SZ MALE↑ Phospholipid metabolism Group 4B PSY MALE↑ shown to be disturbed in SZ; (PLA2G4B) PSY FEMALE↑ the phospholipid structure of neuronal membranes is essential for normal functioning¹⁶. Potassium Channel, 21q22.13 SZ MALE↑ G protein-coupled inwardly Inwardly Rectifying, PSY MALE↑ rectifying potassium channels Subfamily J, (GIRKs) link numerous Member 6 (KCNJ6 neurotransmitter receptors to or GIRK2) the regulation of synaptic transmission in the brain Retinoic Acid 17p11.2 SZ FEMALE↑ Located in a very unstable Inducible-1 (RAI1) genomic region containing a polyglutamine tract associated with SZ¹⁷. Highly suggestive evidence of linkage to this region with SZ has been reported¹⁸ Ribosomal Protein Xq24 BD FEMALE↑ Located at Xq24 in a region on L39 (RPL39) PSY FEMALE↑ the X-chromosome found to be linked to BD in several studies^(19,20) Secretogranin II 2q36.1 PSY FEMALE↓ A secretory protein located in (SCG2) the vesicles of many endocrine cells and neurons that has been shown to stimulate neurotransmitter release²¹. Chronic PCP exposure, which produces signs of persistently altered frontal brain activity and related behaviors that are also seen in patients with SZ, modulates SCG2 expression²². Expression is also altered following lithium treatment, a common medication for BD²³ Solute Carrier 11p14.3 SZ FEMALE↓ Encodes a vesicular glutamate Family 17, Member transporter (VGLUT), co- 6 (SLC17A6 or expressed with VGLUT1 VGLUT2) Solute Carrier 19q13.33 SZ FEMALE↑ Encodes a vesicular glutamate Family 17, Member PSY FEMALE↑ transporter (VGLUT) found to 7 (SLC17A7 or be downregulated in SZ VGLUT1) brains²⁴. Region implicated in a genome-scan meta-analysis of BD²⁵ Vacuolar Protein 15q26.1 PSY MALE↑ VPS33B plays an important Sorting 33B role in vesilcular transport in (VPS33B) numerous tissues. 15q26.1 falls within a region implicated in a genome-scan meta- analysis of SZ⁵ WD Repeat Domain 19p13.3 SZ MALE↓ Probe located 10 kb upstream 18 (WDR18) PSY MALE↓ of NMDA receptor subunit gene (NR3B), postulated to be involved in schizophrenia^(26,27) Wingless-Type 12q13.12 PSY FEMALE↑ The Wnt pathway is critical for Mmtv Integration neurodevelopment and Site Family, regulates cell adhesion, Member 1 (WNT1) synaptic rearrangement, and plasticity; found to be over- expressed in the brains of SZ patients²⁸ *↓ = relative hypomethylation in affected group (increased array intensity following enrichment), ↑ = relative hypermethylation in affected group (decreased array intensity following enrichment). {circumflex over ( )}The probe found to be differently enriched is located ~80 KB upstream of the transcription start-site and does not overlap with the region investigated in our candidate-gene approach

TABLE 10 Genes associated with all FDR-significant clones nominated from microarray analysis (see also FIG. 17). Rank Associated Gene Location FDR-value Fold-change Schizophrenia Males 1 EXOSC7 3p21.31 0.0005 0.2468 2 GRIA2 4q31.1 0.0006 0.2301 3 ELMOD1 11q22.3 0.0006 0.1658 4 KCNJ6 21q22.13 0.0007 −0.2132 5 WDR18 19p13.3 0.0011 0.1380 6 PLA2G4B 15q15.1 0.0014 −0.2045 7 PPP2CA 5q31.1 0.0020 0.2089 8 C13orf24 13q22.1 0.0032 −0.1995 9 FLJ90579 12q21.31 0.0057 0.2340 10 LRRC61 7q36.1 0.0092 0.1496 11 NXPH4 12q13.3 0.0129 0.1368 12 MICAL-L2 7p22.3 0.0142 −0.0956 13 FLJ45721 4p15.2 0.0196 −0.2059 14 PRR5 22q13.31 0.0216 0.2842 15 ADAMTS16 5p15.32 0.0232 0.1685 16 AUTS2 7q11.22 0.0232 −0.0948 17 TPD52 8q21.13 0.0232 −0.1617 18 MYOZ1 10q22.2 0.0232 0.1990 19 MRPS14 1q25.1 0.0250 −0.1671 20 RPP21 6p21.33 0.0250 −0.1804 21 HNRPR 1p36.12 0.0250 −0.1288 22 THBS1 15q14 0.0261 −0.1564 23 FLJ23861 2q34 0.0261 0.1517 24 C1orf110 1q23.3 0.0261 −0.0929 25 MLL5 7q22.2 0.0301 −0.1629 26 GLS2 12q13.2 0.0301 −0.1618 27 HOXD13 2q31.1 0.0328 −0.1796 28 BC032332 20q13.33 0.0339 0.1755 29 SLC31A1 9q32 0.0341 −0.1390 30 C9orf40 9q21.13 0.0357 −0.1421 31 NAG 2p24.3 0.0360 −0.1696 32 UNC5A 5q35.2 0.0360 −0.1356 33 C6orf62 6p22.2 0.0361 0.1213 34 CDC42BPA 1q42.13 0.0369 0.1101 35 CEBPZ 2p22.2 0.0369 0.1755 36 KEL 7q34 0.0394 −0.2105 37 GLRX5 14q32.13 0.0395 −0.1615 38 AIG1 6q24.2 0.0416 0.1583 39 SOX1 13q34 0.0416 −0.1343 40 MET 7q31.2 0.0452 0.1906 41 GLRX5 14q32.13 0.0460 −0.1051 42 PLAG1 8q12.1 0.0470 −0.2080 43 PANX1 11q21 0.0470 0.2048 44 POLR3A 10q22.3 0.0470 −0.1598 45 TRERF1 6p21.1 0.0471 −0.1955 46 PWP1 12q23.3 0.0484 −0.1601 47 COL9A1 6q13 0.0484 0.1563 48 HLA-E 6p21.33 0.0484 −0.1608 49 SMCHD1 18p11.32 0.0484 0.1918 50 FBXO31 16q24.1 0.0484 −0.2240 51 LYST 1q42.3 0.0484 0.1498 Schizophrenia Females 1 C6orf84 6q14.3 0.0209 0.4436 2 HCG9 6p21.33 0.0209 −0.5535 3 SLC17A7 19q13.33 0.0209 −0.5397 4 NR4A2 2q24.1 0.0209 −0.5515 5 AB051500 18q12.1 0.0214 −0.4895 6 RPP21 6p21.33 0.0214 −0.5238 7 FN5 11q21 0.0214 −0.5033 8 NKX2-3 10q24.2 0.0222 −0.5524 9 ADAMTSL1 9p22.2 0.0275 −0.4097 10 MARLIN1 4p16.1 0.0321 −0.5787 11 TMEM59 1p32.3 0.0330 0.4103 12 MTPN 7q33 0.0330 0.5117 13 LMX1B 9q33.3 0.0330 0.5869 14 SLC25A4 4q35.1 0.0352 −0.4203 15 LHX8 1P31.1 0.0352 0.3597 16 LHX5 12q24.13 0.0352 −0.3929 17 CRTC2 1q21.3 0.0352 −0.4635 18 PGRMC1 xq24 0.0352 −0.3961 19 BC037986 22q12.2 0.0352 0.4233 20 Bmp7 20q13.31 0.0352 −0.3563 21 SIX2 2p21 0.0366 −0.4339 22 CCL1 17q12 0.0366 −0.3109 23 C16orf45 16p13.11 0.0366 −0.3878 24 LHX5 12q24.13 0.0403 −0.4214 25 PICALM 11q14.2 0.0406 −0.5156 26 KIAA1787 17p13.1 0.0430 0.3267 27 SLC17A6 11p14.3 0.0430 0.2542 28 SF3B5 6q24.2 0.0435 −0.5020 29 SWAP70 11p15.4 0.0435 0.5038 30 KEL 7q34 0.0435 −0.4062 31 B3GALT3 3q26.1 0.0435 0.5117 32 FLJ45455 17p13.1 0.0436 0.3658 33 RAI1 17p11.2 0.0443 −0.3083 34 AK126832 2p21 0.0443 0.3683 35 IGFL2 19q13.32 0.0443 −0.3096 36 CGI-115 1q41 0.0447 −0.4902 37 PRKCA 17q24.2 0.0453 0.4270 Bipolar Males 1 THBS1 15q14 0.0403 −0.2361 2 MCM4 8q11.21 0.0403 −0.2426 Bipolar Females 1 CGI-115 1q41 0.0200 −0.4032 2 RPL39 xq24 0.0341 −0.4401 3 CGI-115 1q41 0.0341 −0.2332 4 AY831680 3q13.12 0.0341 0.4692 5 NUDT9 4q22.1 0.0341 −0.3460 6 DTNBP1 6p22.3 0.0341 −0.4966 7 ADAMTSL1 9p22.2 0.0341 −0.3663 8 HELT 4q35.1 0.0341 −0.3538 9 MARLIN1 4p16.1 0.0341 −0.4673 10 NKX2-3 10q24.2 0.0341 −0.4604 11 EFHD1 2q37.1 0.0341 −0.3370 12 DLL1 6q27 0.0341 −0.2755 13 ZCWPW2 3p24.1 0.0341 −0.3065 14 SORCS3 10q25.1 0.0354 −0.3901 15 VAX1 10q25.3 0.0424 0.2414 16 AK129895 10p11.23 0.0424 0.4238 17 DIPA 11q13.1 0.0454 −0.3539 18 KIAA0859 1q24.3 0.0454 −0.2527 19 PPP2CA 5q31.1 0.0454 0.2903 20 EPHA5 4q13.1 0.0454 0.5550 21 RPP21 6p21.33 0.0454 −0.3775 22 FNBP1L 1p22.1 0.0454 0.3731 23 C21orf29 21q22.3 0.0454 −0.3262 24 TMEM59 1p32.3 0.0454 0.3886 25 SIL1 5q31.2 0.0454 −0.4085 26 RPAP1 15q15.1 0.0454 −0.2490 27 C16orf45 16p13.11 0.0454 −0.3231 28 NRG2 5q31.3 0.0454 0.2295 29 KEL 7q34 0.0454 −0.3094 30 LOC285513 4q22.1 0.0454 0.3411 31 FLJ23861 2q34 0.0454 0.2402 32 FLJ43505 1q41 0.0454 −0.2876 33 FOXP1 3p14.1 0.0454 0.3213 34 PRKCA 17q24.2 0.0454 0.3429 35 LHX5 12q24.13 0.0460 −0.3573 Psychosis Males 1 KCNJ6 21q22.13 0.0008 −0.2027 2 ELMOD1 11q22.3 0.0022 0.1388 3 EXOSC7 3p21.31 0.0022 0.2067 4 GRIA2 4q32.1 0.0034 0.1948 5 C13orf24 13q22.1 0.0035 −0.1788 6 THBS1 15q14 0.0047 −0.1782 7 WDR18 19p13.3 0.0047 0.1117 8 PPP2CA 5q31.1 0.0054 0.1728 9 STIM2 4p15.2 0.0087 −0.2180 10 C9orf40 9q21.13 0.0145 −0.1537 11 ADAMTS16 5p15.32 0.0173 0.1605 12 LYST 1q42.3 0.0173 0.1500 13 MRPS14 1q25.1 0.0173 −0.1516 14 FBXO31 16q24.1 0.0173 −0.2262 15 CDC42BPA 1q42.13 0.0183 0.1149 16 C6orf62 6p22.2 0.0183 0.1100 17 ZFAND2A 7p22.3 0.0206 −0.0848 18 BC032332 20q13.33 0.0206 0.1601 19 PRR5 22q13.31 0.0221 0.2722 20 FLJ90579 12q21.31 0.0223 0.1968 21 FLJ23861 2q34 0.0223 0.1361 22 PLA2G4B 15q15.1 0.0226 −0.1705 23 MYOZ1 10q22.2 0.0233 0.1751 24 IKIP 12q23.1 0.0237 −0.1802 25 TPD52 8q21.13 0.0240 −0.1442 26 GGN 19q13.2 0.0269 0.2440 27 LRRC61 7q36.1 0.0270 0.1186 28 CEBPZ 2p22.2 0.0292 0.1741 29 MLL5 7q22.2 0.0309 −0.1581 30 HSD17B7 1q23.3 0.0350 −0.0794 31 VPS33B 15q26.1 0.0350 −0.1462 32 FLJ41423 11p11.2 0.0382 −0.1648 33 ZNF195 11p15.4 0.0382 0.1879 34 NAG 2p24.3 0.0478 −0.1622 35 C16orf45 16p13.11 0.0482 −0.1702 36 POLR3A 10q22.3 0.0486 −0.1455 37 CRSP6 11q21 0.0496 0.1825 Psychosis Females 1 CGI-115 1q41 0.0079 −0.4380 2 DHRS8 4q22.1 0.0079 −0.3533 3 ADAMTSL1 9p22.2 0.0079 −0.3802 4 DTNBP1 6p22.3 0.0079 −0.4971 5 CGI-115 1q24.2 0.0107 −0.2389 6 MARLIN1 4p16.1 0.0107 −0.5081 7 NKX2-3 10q41 0.0107 −0.4801 8 DLL1 6q27 0.0107 −0.2728 9 RPP21 6p21.33 0.0107 −0.4191 10 HELT 4q35.1 0.0107 −0.3663 11 TMEM59 1p32.3 0.0115 0.3861 12 PRKCA 17q24.2 0.0131 0.3767 13 RPAP1 15q15.1 0.0140 −0.2389 14 ISL2 15q24.3 0.0140 −0.2466 15 SORCS3 10q25.1 0.0140 −0.3916 16 RPL39 xq24 0.0149 −0.4359 17 AK129895 10q37.1 0.0175 0.4103 18 EFHD1 2p11.23 0.0175 −0.3065 19 LHX5 12q24.13 0.0175 −0.3701 20 SLC17A7 19q13.33 0.0175 −0.4788 21 FOXP1 3p14.1 0.0176 0.3151 22 C16orf45 16p13.11 0.0186 −0.3356 23 EPHA5 4q13.1 0.0186 0.5457 24 VAX1 10q25.3 0.0186 0.2354 25 SMUG1 12q13.13 0.0190 −0.4064 26 ZNF582 19q13.43 0.0195 −0.3132 27 MTPN 7q33 0.0195 0.5284 28 KEL 7q34 0.0195 −0.3375 29 FLJ43505 1q41 0.0195 −0.2912 30 RPP21 6p21.33 0.0195 −0.3981 31 GLRX5 14q32.13 0.0233 −0.3571 32 AK127494 19p13.2 0.0241 −0.3386 33 FNBP1L 1p22.1 0.0241 0.3647 34 FLJ45455 17p13.1 0.0241 0.3359 35 CBX8 17q25.3 0.0241 −0.4036 36 ATF7IP 12p13.1 0.0241 −0.2177 37 PSIP1 9p22.3 0.0241 −0.2317 38 SIL1 5q31.2 0.0249 −0.3742 39 SWAP70 11p15.4 0.0249 0.4102 40 ATOH8 2p11.2 0.0249 −0.3876 41 UXS1 2q12.2 0.0249 −0.4706 42 PPP2CA 5q31.1 0.0266 0.2886 43 HCG9 6p21.33 0.0290 −0.4265 44 C9orf40 9q21.13 0.0327 −0.3146 45 COQ5 12q24.31 0.0327 −0.2538 46 FN5 11q21 0.0339 −0.3808 47 KIAA0859 1q24.3 0.0343 −0.2402 48 TCF7L2 10q25.2 0.0375 0.2205 49 GATAD2A 19p13.11 0.0378 −0.6567 50 FLJ20643 19q13.33 0.0382 −0.2953 51 CLK2 1q22 0.0382 0.5518 52 LMX1B 9q33.3 0.0415 0.5844 53 PLA2G4B 15q15.1 0.0415 −0.3618 54 PSMB7 9q33.3 0.0415 0.5638 55 NRG2 5q31.3 0.0415 0.2370 56 LHX8 1p31.1 0.0418 0.3255 57 B3GALT3 3q26.1 0.0426 0.4555 58 WNT1 12q13.12 0.0426 −0.2894 59 EBPL 13q14.3 0.0426 0.2948 60 ZCWPW2 3p24.1 0.0426 −0.2747 61 HLX1 1q41 0.0426 −0.2878 62 FOSB 19q13.32 0.0426 0.3011 63 CYB5R4 6q14.2 0.0428 0.3911 64 BC037986 22q12.2 0.0428 0.3570 65 C14orf138 14q22.1 0.0428 −0.1832 66 TYMS 18p11.32 0.0428 −0.1812 67 AY831680 3q13.12 0.0428 0.4401 68 CNTN5 11q22.1 0.0438 0.3437 69 TRPS1 8q23.3 0.0438 −0.2733 70 PGRMC1 xq24 0.0438 −0.3393 71 OCIAD1 4p12 0.0465 −0.3200 72 RAB38 11q14.2 0.0475 0.2384 73 SCG2 2q36.1 0.0497 0.3157 74 KIAA1787 17p13.1 0.0497 0.3435

TABLE 11 Gene ontology analysis of microarray data. Mean GO Category N Diff P-value Description Male Bipolar Disorder GO:0008168 4 0.098 0.00006* methyltransferase activity GO:0005737 50 −0.080 0.00007* cytoplasm GO:0005515 139 −0.047 0.00031* protein binding GO:0005634 158 −0.037 0.00074* nucleus{circumflex over ( )} GO:0006950 5 −0.171 0.00168* response to stress GO:0016481 5 −0.156 0.00309 negative regulation of transcription GO:0008134 5 −0.153 0.00401 transcription factor binding GO:0007275 37 −0.073 0.00418 multicellular organismal development GO:0008104 3 0.136 0.00480 protein localization{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005216 3 0.092 0.00564 ion channel activity GO:0005488 10 −0.116 0.00766 binding{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005643 6 −0.159 0.00845 nuclear pore Female Bipolar Disorder GO:0042773 9 0.940 0.00000* ATP synthesis coupled electron transport{circumflex over ( )} GO:0006879 11 0.817 0.00000* iron ion homeostasis{circumflex over ( )} GO:0030595 11 0.817 0.00000* leukocyte chemotaxis{circumflex over ( )} GO:0048019 11 0.817 0.00000* receptor antagonist activity{circumflex over ( )} GO:0048471 11 0.817 0.00000* perinuclear region of cytoplasm{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005747 13 0.730 0.00002* mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I{circumflex over ( )} GO:0006120 13 0.730 0.00002* mitochondrial electron transport, NADH to ubiquinone{circumflex over ( )} GO:0008137 13 0.730 0.00002* NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) activity{circumflex over ( )} GO:0016491 23 0.487 0.00003* oxidoreductase activity{circumflex over ( )} GO:0006916 17 0.576 0.00006* anti-apoptosis{circumflex over ( )} GO:0016021 72 0.194 0.00013* integral to membrane{circumflex over ( )} GO:0007420 6 0.297 0.00017* brain development{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005488 5 −0.142 0.00039* binding{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005576 20 0.459 0.00051* extracellular region{circumflex over ( )} GO:0003674 15 −0.201 0.00055* molecular_function{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005739 33 0.302 0.00069* mitochondrion{circumflex over ( )} GO:0004759 4 −0.191 0.00107* serine esterase activity{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005496 3 −0.306 0.00112* steroid binding{circumflex over ( )} GO:0008289 3 −0.306 0.00112* lipid binding{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005634 153 0.069 0.00133* nucleus{circumflex over ( )} GO:0008150 13 -0.200 0.00163* biological_process{circumflex over ( )} GO:0016020 108 0.113 0.00199* membrane{circumflex over ( )} GO:0006935 4 0.493 0.00278* chemotaxis GO:0005886 16 0.166 0.00360* plasma membrane GO:0009887 9 0.264 0.00446* organ morphogenesis GO:0007389 3 −0.173 0.00749 pattern specification process GO:0016023 3 −0.199 0.00768 cytoplasmic membrane-bound vesicle GO:0016788 3 −0.199 0.00768 hydrolase activity, acting on ester bonds GO:0018738 3 −0.199 0.00768 S-formylglutathione hydrolase activity GO:0006350 44 0.103 0.00923 transcription GO:0006355 72 0.084 0.00966 regulation of transcription, DNA-dependent Male Schizophrenia GO:0007165 33 0.059 0.00865 signal transduction Female Schizophrenia GO:0005747 20 0.712 0.00000* mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I{circumflex over ( )} GO:0006120 20 0.712 0.00000* mitochondrial electron transport, NADH to ubiquinone{circumflex over ( )} GO:0008137 20 0.712 0.00000* NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) activity{circumflex over ( )} GO:0006879 18 0.737 0.00000* iron ion homeostasis{circumflex over ( )} GO:0030595 18 0.737 0.00000* leukocyte chemotaxis{circumflex over ( )} GO:0048019 18 0.737 0.00000* receptor antagonist activity{circumflex over ( )} GO:0048471 18 0.737 0.00000* perinuclear region of cytoplasm{circumflex over ( )} GO:0042773 13 0.754 0.00000* ATP synthesis coupled electron transport{circumflex over ( )} GO:0006916 25 0.577 0.00000* anti-apoptosis{circumflex over ( )} GO:0016491 30 0.490 0.00000* oxidoreductase activity{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005576 29 0.490 0.00000* extracellular region{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005739 40 0.351 0.00001* mitochondrion{circumflex over ( )} GO:0016021 89 0.179 0.00002* integral to membrane{circumflex over ( )} GO:0016020 130 0.137 0.00003* membrane{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005215 7 0.266 0.00012* transporter activity GO:0045944 7 −0.273 0.00013* positive regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter GO:0003674 15 −0.241 0.00066* molecular_function{circumflex over ( )} GO:0007420 5 0.262 0.00110* brain development{circumflex over ( )} GO:0031966 5 0.690 0.00137* mitochondrial membrane GO:0007067 4 −0.247 0.00151* mitosis GO:0051301 4 −0.247 0.00151* cell division GO:0008104 3 −0.178 0.00220* protein localization{circumflex over ( )} GO:0005496 3 −0.371 0.00241* steroid binding{circumflex over ( )} GO:0008289 3 −0.371 0.00241* lipid binding{circumflex over ( )} GO:0016251 5 0.165 0.00244* general RNA polymerase II transcription factor activity GO:0008150 13 −0.233 0.00270* biological_process{circumflex over ( )} GO:0016757 4 0.292 0.00288* transferase activity, transferring glycosyl groups GO:0004759 3 −0.172 0.00524* serine esterase activity{circumflex over ( )} Shown are all GO categories with a p-value <0.01 (*= categories with FDR value <0.05; {circumflex over ( )}= categories present in more than one diagnostic group). A positive mean difference suggests hypomethylation in the affected group relative to unaffected controls.

TABLE 12 Average % CpG methylation assessed using Pyrosequencing across genes. Link to Mean amplicon Gene major Amplicon Assay methylation (SD) (Loc) psychosis Amplicon Location* CGs SZ BD CTRL ARVCF Located next Intron 3 22: 18354314-18354584 10 4.53 5.02 4.69 22q11 to COMT in (0.78) (0.95) (0.53) a region deleted in velocardiofacial syndrome BDNF A Exon 2{circumflex over ( )} 11: 27636431-27636634 4 82.48 81.14 82.11 11p13 prosurvival (2.03) (5.24) (2.72) factor Intron 1(a) 11: 27697459-27697652 10 4.19 2.93 4.43 necessary (0.72) (1.57) (3.35) for survival Intron 1(b) 11: 27678599-27678889 12 6.40 5.97 6.40 of striatal (1.39) (0.48) (0.96) neurons in Promoter 11: 27700523-27700854 15 2.64 2.95 2.52 the brain (0.72) (0.58) (0.36) COMT Catalyzes Exon 4 22: 18331021-18331322 9 74.4 74.05 75.17 22q11 the transfer (1.65) (3.21) (2.56) of a methyl Promoter 22: 18309077-18309496 12 2.35 2.79 3.12 group to (1.53) (2.71) (3.44) catecholamine neurotransmitters including dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. DRD4 Shows high Promoter{circumflex over ( )}{circumflex over ( )} 11: 626685-626839 12 12.23 12.46 13.67 11p15 affinity for (4.61) (2.96) (2.51) the antipsychotic clozapine. DTNBP1 A Intron 1^(#) 6: 15770400-15770612 12 5.02 3.87 4.50 6p22 ubiquitously (3.46) (1.76) (2.15) expressed Promoter^(#) 6: 15771064-15771358 15 5.92 5.24 5.11 protein that (1.98) (1.84) (1.80) binds to alpha- and beta- dystrobrevins, and has been widely associated with schizophrenia. GAD1 Catalyzes Intron 1 2: 171381495-171381705 10 3.13 3.49 3.57 2q31 the (0.54) (1.24) (0.78) conversion Intron 3 2: 171387778-171388116 13 11.05 11.21 11.56 of glutamic (1.82) (1.69) (3.18) acid to Promoter 2: 171380534-171380762 12 6.00 7.22 5.97 gamma- (0.47) (1.98) (0.88) aminobutyric acid (GABA), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the vertebral central nervous system. GRIN2B A critical Promoter 12: 14025024-14025307 10 5.60 7.19 5.97 12p12 structural (1.89) (2.00) (1.49) and functional subunit of the NMDA glutamate receptor that has been widely implicated in psychosis MTHFR Polymorphisms Promoter 1: 11788017-11788228 12 1.19 1.12 1.03 1p36 in the (a) (0.78) (0.31) (0.21) 5,10- Promoter 1: 11788356-11788642 18 1.27 1.29 1.48 @Methylene (b) (0.15) (0.23) (0.18) tetrahydrofolate Reductase gene have been associated with both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. NRG1 One of four Intron 1 8: 32525871-32526230 8 5.16 4.63 3.99 8p22-11 neuregulin (1.26) (0.70) (1.56) growth Promoter 8: 32524919-32525183 14 2.54 3.98 2.41 factor genes (0.39) (2.52) (0.47) that signal through the erbB receptor kinase pathways, and is known to be involved in neuronal migration and cellular differentiation in the developing brain. RELN Thought to Promoter 7: 103417221-103417716 11 3.51 3.98 3.15 7q22 control cell- (a) (0.98) (0.67) (0.34) cell Promoter 7: 103417669-103417968 11 1.89 2.74 2.31 interactions (b) (0.47) (1.28) (0.56) critical for Promoter 7: 103416649-103416879 12 3.64 4.60 3.69 cell (c) (1.59) (1.70) (1.85) positioning in the brain. Hypermethylation of the promoter region of RELN has been found in some schizophrenic brain samples *May 2006 UCSC Genome Assembly {circumflex over ( )}DNA methylation found to correlate with genotype {circumflex over ( )}{circumflex over ( )}2 individual CpG locations within DRD4_Prm amplicons were significantly associated with diagnosis but did not survive correction for multiple testing # A region further upstream of DTNBP1 was found to be significantly hypermethylated in affected females relative to controls by microarray analysis 

1. A method of identifying one or more epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease, the method comprising, a) obtaining a first group of samples comprising genomic DNA from a plurality of subjects exhibiting a psychosis-associated disease and a second group of samples comprising genomic DNA from a plurality of control subjects; b) performing DNA methylation analysis to determine methylation differences in one or more DNA regions between the first group and second group of samples, wherein a methylation difference in a DNA region is indicative of an epigenetic marker associated with the psychosis-associated disease.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the psychosis-associated disease is bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.
 3. The method of claim 2 wherein the disease is bipolar disorder.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the disease is schizophrenia.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the DNA methylation analysis is DNA microarray analysis.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the samples are blood, brain, sperm or any other tissue or a sample that provides genomic DNA.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein DNA microarray analysis comprises hybridization of differentially epigenetically modified DNA from each subject of said first and second groups to a genomic microarray.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the differences comprise hypermethylation differences, hypomethylation differences or both.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein said step of performing identifies a set of epigenetic markers, the set providing an increased correlation of association with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia as compared to a single epigenetic marker.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein said method further comprises identifying one or more genes associated with the epigenetic markers.
 11. A method of determining the risk of a subject having or developing a psychosis-associated disease comprising, a) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from the subject, b) determining the methylation status of one or more epigenetic markers in the genomic DNA sample from the subject, and; c) comparing the methylation status of said one or more epigenetic markers to the methylation status of a control group of epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease, wherein similar or identical methylation status profiles are indicative of an increased risk of having or developing the psychosis-associated disease.
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the psychosis-associated disease is bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.
 13. One or more epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease, the markers identified by the method of claim
 1. 14. The markers as defined in claim 13, wherein the disease is bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.
 15. A nucleotide sequence array comprising one or more epigenetic markers associated with a psychosis-associated disease or disorder.
 16. The array of claim 15, wherein the disease or disorder is bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.
 17. One or more epigenetic markers associated with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia, wherein each of said one or more markers comprises a methylated cytosine.
 18. A set of epigenetic markers associated with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia, the markers comprising a plurality of nucleotide sequences that are differentially epigenetically modified and that are positively associated with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. 